本要約では、遺伝的にがんになりやすいかどうかの評価とそれに関するカウンセリングについて、取り組みの現状を説明する。遺伝カウンセリングとは、米国遺伝カウンセラー学会(National Society of Genetic Counselors)により、疾患に対する遺伝的寄与の医学的、心理学的、および家族的意味合いを人々が理解し、適応するのを助ける過程と定義されている。がんのリスク評価、カウンセリング、および遺伝子検査の経過について概要を示したレビューが数件ある。[
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Riley BD, Culver JO, Skrzynia C, et al.: Essential elements of genetic cancer risk assessment, counseling, and testing: updated recommendations of the National Society of Genetic Counselors. J Genet Couns 21 (2): 151-61, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
Weitzel JN, Blazer KR, MacDonald DJ, et al.: Genetics, genomics, and cancer risk assessment: State of the Art and Future Directions in the Era of Personalized Medicine. CA Cancer J Clin 61 (5): 327-59, 2011 Sep-Oct.[PUBMED Abstract]
Hampel H, Bennett RL, Buchanan A, et al.: A practice guideline from the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the National Society of Genetic Counselors: referral indications for cancer predisposition assessment. Genet Med 17 (1): 70-87, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Tobias DH, Eng C, McCurdy LD, et al.: Founder BRCA 1 and 2 mutations among a consecutive series of Ashkenazi Jewish ovarian cancer patients. Gynecol Oncol 78 (2): 148-51, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
Beller U, Halle D, Catane R, et al.: High frequency of BRCA1 and BRCA2 germline mutations in Ashkenazi Jewish ovarian cancer patients, regardless of family history. Gynecol Oncol 67 (2): 123-6, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
Gabai-Kapara E, Lahad A, Kaufman B, et al.: Population-based screening for breast and ovarian cancer risk due to BRCA1 and BRCA2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111 (39): 14205-10, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
Randall LM, Pothuri B, Swisher EM, et al.: Multi-disciplinary summit on genetics services for women with gynecologic cancers: A Society of Gynecologic Oncology White Paper. Gynecol Oncol 146 (2): 217-224, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
Committee on Practice Bulletins–Gynecology, Committee on Genetics, Society of Gynecologic Oncology: Practice Bulletin No 182: Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 130 (3): e110-e126, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
Robson ME, Storm CD, Weitzel J, et al.: American Society of Clinical Oncology policy statement update: genetic and genomic testing for cancer susceptibility. J Clin Oncol 28 (5): 893-901, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
Lancaster JM, Powell CB, Chen LM, et al.: Society of Gynecologic Oncology statement on risk assessment for inherited gynecologic cancer predispositions. Gynecol Oncol 136 (1): 3-7, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Robson ME, Bradbury AR, Arun B, et al.: American Society of Clinical Oncology Policy Statement Update: Genetic and Genomic Testing for Cancer Susceptibility. J Clin Oncol 33 (31): 3660-7, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
National Comprehensive Cancer Network: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Genetic/Familial High-Risk Assessment: Breast, Ovarian, and Pancreatic. Version 1.2020. Plymouth Meeting, Pa: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2019. Available online with free registration. Last accessed December 23, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
National Comprehensive Cancer Network: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Genetic/Familial High-Risk Assessment: Colorectal. Version 3.2019. Plymouth Meeting, PA: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2019. Available online with free registration. Last accessed February 05, 2020.[PUBMED Abstract]
遺伝カウンセリングへの紹介が必要な候補者の特定
ある人のがんの個人歴およびがんの家族歴を聴取した後、いくつかの因子から遺伝性がん感受性症候群を評価するため遺伝学専門家への紹介が妥当となる場合がある。American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics(米国臨床遺伝学会)およびNational Society of Genetic Counselors(米国遺伝カウンセラー学会)により、リスクのある個人の特定とがんの遺伝的リスク相談への適切な紹介の指針とするために個人歴および家族歴の包括的な一組の基準が発表されている。[
1
]これらの診療ガイドラインは、腫瘍の種類や他の特徴と遺伝相談への紹介が必要であることを示す関係する基準を考慮に入れている。著者らは、このガイドラインはリスクのある個人のがん遺伝相談への適切な紹介を最大化するように意図されたものであり、遺伝子検査または治療の推奨を提供するように意図されたものではないと表明している。
Hampel H, Bennett RL, Buchanan A, et al.: A practice guideline from the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the National Society of Genetic Counselors: referral indications for cancer predisposition assessment. Genet Med 17 (1): 70-87, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
National Comprehensive Cancer Network: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Genetic/Familial High-Risk Assessment: Breast, Ovarian, and Pancreatic. Version 1.2020. Plymouth Meeting, Pa: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2019. Available online with free registration. Last accessed December 23, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
National Comprehensive Cancer Network: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Genetic/Familial High-Risk Assessment: Colorectal. Version 3.2019. Plymouth Meeting, PA: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2019. Available online with free registration. Last accessed February 05, 2020.[PUBMED Abstract]
Lancaster JM, Powell CB, Chen LM, et al.: Society of Gynecologic Oncology statement on risk assessment for inherited gynecologic cancer predispositions. Gynecol Oncol 136 (1): 3-7, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Bellcross CA, Lemke AA, Pape LS, et al.: Evaluation of a breast/ovarian cancer genetics referral screening tool in a mammography population. Genet Med 11 (11): 783-9, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
Bellcross C: Further development and evaluation of a breast/ovarian cancer genetics referral screening tool. Genet Med 12 (4): 240, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
Brannon Traxler L, Martin ML, Kerber AS, et al.: Implementing a screening tool for identifying patients at risk for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer: a statewide initiative. Ann Surg Oncol 21 (10): 3342-7, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
Bellcross C, Hermstad A, Tallo C, et al.: Validation of Version 3.0 of the Breast Cancer Genetics Referral Screening Tool (B-RST™). Genet Med 21 (1): 181-184, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
Emery JD, Reid G, Prevost AT, et al.: Development and validation of a family history screening questionnaire in Australian primary care. Ann Fam Med 12 (3): 241-9, 2014 May-Jun.[PUBMED Abstract]
Gilpin CA, Carson N, Hunter AG: A preliminary validation of a family history assessment form to select women at risk for breast or ovarian cancer for referral to a genetics center. Clin Genet 58 (4): 299-308, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
Ashton-Prolla P, Giacomazzi J, Schmidt AV, et al.: Development and validation of a simple questionnaire for the identification of hereditary breast cancer in primary care. BMC Cancer 9: 283, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
Hoskins KF, Zwaagstra A, Ranz M: Validation of a tool for identifying women at high risk for hereditary breast cancer in population-based screening. Cancer 107 (8): 1769-76, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
Teller P, Hoskins KF, Zwaagstra A, et al.: Validation of the pedigree assessment tool (PAT) in families with BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations. Ann Surg Oncol 17 (1): 240-6, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
Cohn WF, Jones SM, Miesfeldt S: "Are you at risk for hereditary breast cancer?": development of a personal risk assessment tool for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. J Genet Couns 17 (1): 64-78, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
Fisher TJ, Kirk J, Hopper JL, et al.: A simple tool for identifying unaffected women at a moderately increased or potentially high risk of breast cancer based on their family history. Breast 12 (2): 120-7, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
Stewart SL, Kaplan CP, Lee R, et al.: Validation of an Efficient Screening Tool to Identify Low-Income Women at High Risk for Hereditary Breast Cancer. Public Health Genomics 19 (6): 342-351, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
Rabinowitz-Abrams D, Morgan D, Morse J, et al.: Building a tool to identify risk for Lynch syndrome among individuals presenting for screening colonoscopy. J Genet Couns 19 (4): 353-9, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
Sweet K, Sturm AC, Rettig A, et al.: Clinically relevant lessons from Family HealthLink: a cancer and coronary heart disease familial risk assessment tool. Genet Med 17 (6): 493-500, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Baumgart LA, Postula KJ, Knaus WA: Initial clinical validation of Health Heritage, a patient-facing tool for personal and family history collection and cancer risk assessment. Fam Cancer 15 (2): 331-9, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
Hampel H, Bennett RL, Buchanan A, et al.: A practice guideline from the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the National Society of Genetic Counselors: referral indications for cancer predisposition assessment. Genet Med 17 (1): 70-87, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Committee on Practice Bulletins–Gynecology, Committee on Genetics, Society of Gynecologic Oncology: Practice Bulletin No 182: Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 130 (3): e110-e126, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
Robson ME, Storm CD, Weitzel J, et al.: American Society of Clinical Oncology policy statement update: genetic and genomic testing for cancer susceptibility. J Clin Oncol 28 (5): 893-901, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
Robson ME, Bradbury AR, Arun B, et al.: American Society of Clinical Oncology Policy Statement Update: Genetic and Genomic Testing for Cancer Susceptibility. J Clin Oncol 33 (31): 3660-7, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Botkin JR, Belmont JW, Berg JS, et al.: Points to Consider: Ethical, Legal, and Psychosocial Implications of Genetic Testing in Children and Adolescents. Am J Hum Genet 97 (1): 6-21, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Statement of the American Society of Human Genetics on genetic testing for breast and ovarian cancer predisposition. Am J Hum Genet 55 (5): i-iv, 1994.[PUBMED Abstract]
International Society of Nurses in Genetics: Provision of Quality Genetic Services and Care: Building a Multidisciplinary, Collaborative Approach among
Genetic Nurses and Genetic Counselors. Pittsburgh, Pa: International Society of Nurses in Genetics, 2006. Available online. Last accessed February 26, 2020.[PUBMED Abstract]
International Society of Nurses in Genetics: Genetic Counseling for Vulnerable Populations: The Role of Nursing. Pittsburgh, Pa: International Society of Nurses in Genetics, 2010. Available online. Last accessed February 26, 2020.[PUBMED Abstract]
Resta R, Biesecker BB, Bennett RL, et al.: A new definition of Genetic Counseling: National Society of Genetic Counselors' Task Force report. J Genet Couns 15 (2): 77-83, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
Riley BD, Culver JO, Skrzynia C, et al.: Essential elements of genetic cancer risk assessment, counseling, and testing: updated recommendations of the National Society of Genetic Counselors. J Genet Couns 21 (2): 151-61, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
Berliner JL, Fay AM, Cummings SA, et al.: NSGC practice guideline: risk assessment and genetic counseling for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. J Genet Couns 22 (2): 155-63, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
National Comprehensive Cancer Network: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Genetic/Familial High-Risk Assessment: Breast, Ovarian, and Pancreatic. Version 1.2020. Plymouth Meeting, Pa: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2019. Available online with free registration. Last accessed December 23, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
National Comprehensive Cancer Network: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Genetic/Familial High-Risk Assessment: Colorectal. Version 3.2019. Plymouth Meeting, PA: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2019. Available online with free registration. Last accessed February 05, 2020.[PUBMED Abstract]
Oncology nursing: the application of cancer genetics and genomics throughout the oncology care continuum. Oncol Nurs Forum 40 (1): 10-1, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
Lancaster JM, Powell CB, Chen LM, et al.: Society of Gynecologic Oncology statement on risk assessment for inherited gynecologic cancer predispositions. Gynecol Oncol 136 (1): 3-7, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Randall LM, Pothuri B, Swisher EM, et al.: Multi-disciplinary summit on genetics services for women with gynecologic cancers: A Society of Gynecologic Oncology White Paper. Gynecol Oncol 146 (2): 217-224, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
Moyer VA; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force: Risk assessment, genetic counseling, and genetic testing for BRCA-related cancer in women: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 160 (4): 271-81, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
Resta RG: Defining and redefining the scope and goals of genetic counseling. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet 142C (4): 269-75, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
Baty BJ, Kinney AY, Ellis SM: Developing culturally sensitive cancer genetics communication aids for African Americans. Am J Med Genet 118A (2): 146-55, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
Jenkins JF, Lea DH: Nursing Care in the Genomic Era: A Case-Based Approach. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
Meiser B, Gaff C, Julian-Reynier C, et al.: International perspectives on genetic counseling and testing for breast cancer risk. Breast Dis 27: 109-25, 2006-2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
Burke W, Pinsky LE, Press NA: Categorizing genetic tests to identify their ethical, legal, and social implications. Am J Med Genet 106 (3): 233-40, 2001 Fall.[PUBMED Abstract]
Rahm AK, Sukhanova A, Ellis J, et al.: Increasing utilization of cancer genetic counseling services using a patient navigator model. J Genet Couns 16 (2): 171-7, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
Kentwell M, Dow E, Antill Y, et al.: Mainstreaming cancer genetics: A model integrating germline BRCA testing into routine ovarian cancer clinics. Gynecol Oncol 145 (1): 130-136, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
Kishan AU, Gomez CL, Dawson NA, et al.: Increasing Appropriate BRCA1/2 Mutation Testing: The Role of Family History Documentation and Genetic Counseling in a Multidisciplinary Clinic. Ann Surg Oncol 23 (Suppl 5): 634-641, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
Walker AP: The practice of genetic counseling. In: Baker DL, Schuette JL, Uhlmann WR, eds.: A Guide to Genetic Counseling. New York, NY: Wiley-Liss, 1998, pp 1-26.[PUBMED Abstract]
Bartels DM, LeRoy BS, Caplan AL, eds.: Prescribing Our Future: Ethical Challenges in Genetic Counseling. New York, NY: Aldine De Gruyter, 1993.[PUBMED Abstract]
Kenen RH: Genetic counseling: the development of a new interdisciplinary occupational field. Soc Sci Med 18 (7): 541-9, 1984.[PUBMED Abstract]
Kenen RH, Smith AC: Genetic counseling for the next 25 years: models for the future. J Genet Couns 4 (2): 115-24, 1995.[PUBMED Abstract]
Weil Jon: Psychosocial Genetic Counseling. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
Freedman AN, Wideroff L, Olson L, et al.: US physicians' attitudes toward genetic testing for cancer susceptibility. Am J Med Genet A 120A (1): 63-71, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
さまざまながん遺伝的症候群に関連する臨床的特徴が、米国臨床遺伝学会(American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics)および米国遺伝カウンセラー学会(National Society of Genetic Counselors)により発表された以下の個人歴および家族歴の包括的な一組の基準において要約されている。[
32
]これらの診療ガイドラインは、腫瘍の種類や他の特徴と遺伝相談への紹介が必要であることを示す関係する基準を考慮に入れている。著者らは、このガイドラインはリスクのある個人のがん遺伝相談への適切な紹介を最大化するように意図されたものであり、遺伝子検査または治療の推奨を提供するように意図されたものではないと表明している。
多くの研究者がGenetic Risk Assessment on the Internet with Decision Support(GRAIDS)[
58
]などの医療提供者向けの決定支援ツールを開発しているが、現時点では、臨床判断が依然として、以前の確率またはがんの絶対リスク推定の重要な構成要素となっている。[
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参考文献
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Robson ME, Bradbury AR, Arun B, et al.: American Society of Clinical Oncology Policy Statement Update: Genetic and Genomic Testing for Cancer Susceptibility. J Clin Oncol 33 (31): 3660-7, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Berliner JL, Fay AM, Cummings SA, et al.: NSGC practice guideline: risk assessment and genetic counseling for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. J Genet Couns 22 (2): 155-63, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
Lancaster JM, Powell CB, Chen LM, et al.: Society of Gynecologic Oncology statement on risk assessment for inherited gynecologic cancer predispositions. Gynecol Oncol 136 (1): 3-7, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Committee on Practice Bulletins–Gynecology, Committee on Genetics, Society of Gynecologic Oncology: Practice Bulletin No 182: Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome. Obstet Gynecol 130 (3): e110-e126, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
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遺伝子検査という選択肢
検査の提案に際して考慮すべき因子
検査に対する適応
リスク評価から遺伝性がん症候群の存在が示唆され、それに関する特定の遺伝子が同定されている場合に、専門家は遺伝子検査の提案を奨める。米国臨床腫瘍学会(ASCO)のがん感受性に対する遺伝子検査の方針声明([
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][
2
]American Society of Clinical Oncology Policy Statement on Genetic Testing for Cancer Susceptibility)では、下記の状況に当てはまる場合に遺伝子検査を提案すべきであると提唱している:
遺伝子検査に関するこの限られた規制的な監督の意味に関する証拠は不十分で、主に品質保証調査に対する検査室室長の回答から得られている。遺伝子検査を実施している検査室長133人を対象とした調査により、88%の検査室がAmerican Board of Medical Genetics(ABMG)認定、またはABMG資格を有する専門の遺伝学者を1人以上雇用しており、23%が1人以上の博士課程の遺伝学者と提携していることが明らかになった。8%の検査室では、博士レベルの遺伝学専門家を雇っておらず、また提携もしていなかった。70%の検査室では検査室で開発した検査が実施されていた。63%の検査室は、検査報告の一環として検査結果の解釈を提供していた。[
50
]190人の検査室室長を対象とした別の調査では、97%の検査室が高い複雑性検査に対してCLIAの承認を受けていたことが明らかにされた。16%の検査室が専門分野の承認を受けていないと回答した;専門分野の承認を受けていない検査室が最も検査量が多く、最も広範囲な検査の選択を提供していた。[
47
]専門分野の承認を受けていた検査室のうち、すべての検査室が遺伝子検査に関する承認を受けていたわけではなく、48%が病理学の承認、46%が化学の承認、および41%が臨床細胞遺伝学の承認を得ていると回答した。16%の検査室室長が外部機関による公式の熟達度試験プログラムに参加していないことを報告したが、77%では外部機関による公式の熟達度試験プログラムが利用できない場合に、非公式の熟達度試験を実施していた。
米国保健社会福祉省(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services)のSecretary's Advisory Committee on Genetics, Health, and Societyにより、米国における遺伝子検査に対する現在の監督システムの妥当性および透明性に関する詳細な報告書が発表されている。[
52
]この委員会により、以下の領域で隔たりが確認されている:
2014年10月に、FDAは、検査室で開発した検査の規制に関するドラフトのガイダンスを策定する計画について、通知を公表した。[
53
]パブリックレビューおよびコメントを求めるために、産業界および臨床検査機関に対する規制監督の枠組みについて概説したドラフトのガイダンス文書が2014年後半に公表された。このような規制行為は臨床診療における広範な遺伝子検査に影響を及ぼす可能性を考慮して、提案されたドラフトのガイダンスは、多くの専門家団体により議論され、レビューされていることから、米国人類遺伝学会(ASHG:American Society of Human Genetics)およびAssociation for Molecular Pathologyなどのさまざま専門家団体から方針声明および解析が引き出されている。検査室で開発した検査のFDA監督の問題については検討中である。
2016年にAmerican College of Medical Genetics and GenomicsによるDTC遺伝子検査に関する声明では、同様に検査の申し込みおよび解釈の過程で資格のある遺伝学専門家の関与が支持された。[
80
]この声明でも、確立されたリスク評価方法を疾患リスク予測(個人および家族の病歴情報など)に組み込む必要性が力説され、消費者がDTC検査で考えられる限界およびリスクについて情報を得る必要性が強調された。
小児における遺伝子検査の結果がレビューされている。[
93
]成人における観察とは対照的に、特に若年の小児は検査結果に基づく親子の絆の変化による影響を受けやすい。遺伝子検査は自己概念および自尊心の発達に干渉しうる。小児はまた、生存者の罪悪感や強い不安の感情を作り出すリスクがある。いずれの小児も特に検査、結果、健康への意味を理解できない可能性がある。小児が成熟するにつれて、両親への依存は低下し始める一方で、個人のアイデンティティが現れてくる。これは重大な健康に関する状況または遺伝的障害の状況で変化しうる。より年齢の高い小児は身体的に成熟し、親密な関係を築き始める一方で、両親の理想像を変化させることもある。これらすべてが遺伝子検査の結果による影響を受ける。[
93
]European Society of Human Geneticsは、無症状の未成年者における遺伝子検査についての推奨において、子供の年齢および発達段階に合わせた方法で、両親が遺伝的リスクについて子供に話し、この情報を伝える責任があることを強調している。[
95
][
96
]
遺伝カウンセリングおよび遺伝子検査を弱者集団に実施する場合には特別な配慮が必要である。1995年、米国人類遺伝学会(American Society of Human Genetics)は、弱者集団としての小児および青年における遺伝子検査の倫理的、法的、および心理社会的意味合いに関する立場表明を発表した。[
89
]しかしながら、弱者集団に含まれるのは単純に小児だけではない。ヒトの被験者が関わる研究に適用可能な連邦政策、45 CFR Code of Federal Regulations part 46 Protection Of Human Subjectsでは、次のグループを潜在的な弱者集団とみなしている:囚人、外傷がある患者および昏睡患者、末期患者、認知障害のあるおよび/または施設に収容されている高齢者、マイノリティ、学生、従業員、および米国以外の出身の個人。遺伝子検査に限定すると、国際遺伝看護学会(International Society of Nurses in Genetics)では、弱者集団の定義がさらに拡大され、聴力および言語障害者またはコミュニケーションが阻害される状況(例えば、言語の違いおよび翻訳の信頼性に対する懸念)にある人、認知障害者、精神障害者、家族状況によりストレスを受けているクライアント、経済的困窮者、急性または慢性疾患を有する寿命末期のクライアント、および医薬品が根拠を損なっている可能性がある人も含められた。
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Baty BJ, Kinney AY, Ellis SM: Developing culturally sensitive cancer genetics communication aids for African Americans. Am J Med Genet 118A (2): 146-55, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
Green MJ, Peterson SK, Baker MW, et al.: Effect of a computer-based decision aid on knowledge, perceptions, and intentions about genetic testing for breast cancer susceptibility: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 292 (4): 442-52, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
Fransen M, Meertens R, Schrander-Stumpel C: Communication and risk presentation in genetic counseling. Development of a checklist. Patient Educ Couns 61 (1): 126-33, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
Wang C, Gonzalez R, Milliron KJ, et al.: Genetic counseling for BRCA1/2: a randomized controlled trial of two strategies to facilitate the education and counseling process. Am J Med Genet A 134 (1): 66-73, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
Lobb EA, Butow PN, Moore A, et al.: Development of a communication aid to facilitate risk communication in consultations with unaffected women from high risk breast cancer families: a pilot study. J Genet Couns 15 (5): 393-405, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
Mackay J, Schulz P, Rubinelli S, et al.: Online patient education and risk assessment: project OPERA from Cancerbackup. Putting inherited breast cancer risk information into context using argumentation theory. Patient Educ Couns 67 (3): 261-6, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
Green MJ, Peterson SK, Baker MW, et al.: Use of an educational computer program before genetic counseling for breast cancer susceptibility: effects on duration and content of counseling sessions. Genet Med 7 (4): 221-9, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
Coelho JJ, Arnold A, Nayler J, et al.: An assessment of the efficacy of cancer genetic counselling using real-time videoconferencing technology (telemedicine) compared to face-to-face consultations. Eur J Cancer 41 (15): 2257-61, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
Lea DH, Johnson JL, Ellingwood S, et al.: Telegenetics in Maine: Successful clinical and educational service delivery model developed from a 3-year pilot project. Genet Med 7 (1): 21-7, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
Voorwinden JS, Jaspers JP, ter Beest JG, et al.: The introduction of a choice to learn pre-symptomatic DNA test results for BRCA or Lynch syndrome either face-to-face or by letter. Clin Genet 81 (5): 421-9, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
Eijzenga W, Aaronson NK, Hahn DE, et al.: Effect of routine assessment of specific psychosocial problems on personalized communication, counselors' awareness, and distress levels in cancer genetic counseling practice: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Oncol 32 (27): 2998-3004, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
Hall MJ, Manne SL, Winkel G, et al.: Effects of a decision support intervention on decisional conflict associated with microsatellite instability testing. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 20 (2): 249-54, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
Zilliacus EM, Meiser B, Lobb EA, et al.: Are videoconferenced consultations as effective as face-to-face consultations for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer genetic counseling? Genet Med 13 (11): 933-41, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
Sangha K: Assessment of the effectiveness of genetic counseling
by telephone compared to a clinic visit. J Genet Couns 12 (2): 171-84, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
Calzone KA, Prindiville SA, Jourkiv O, et al.: Randomized comparison of group versus individual genetic education and counseling for familial breast and/or ovarian cancer. J Clin Oncol 23 (15): 3455-64, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
Jenkins J, Calzone KA, Dimond E, et al.: Randomized comparison of phone versus in-person BRCA1/2 predisposition genetic test result disclosure counseling. Genet Med 9 (8): 487-95, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
Peshkin BN, Demarco TA, Graves KD, et al.: Telephone genetic counseling for high-risk women undergoing BRCA1 and BRCA2 testing: rationale and development of a randomized controlled trial. Genet Test 12 (1): 37-52, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
Zilliacus EM, Meiser B, Lobb EA, et al.: Women's experience of telehealth cancer genetic counseling. J Genet Couns 19 (5): 463-72, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
Rothwell E, Kohlmann W, Jasperson K, et al.: Patient outcomes associated with group and individual genetic counseling formats. Fam Cancer 11 (1): 97-106, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
Platten U, Rantala J, Lindblom A, et al.: The use of telephone in genetic counseling versus in-person counseling: a randomized study on counselees' outcome. Fam Cancer 11 (3): 371-9, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
Benusiglio PR, Di Maria M, Dorling L, et al.: Hereditary breast and ovarian cancer: successful systematic implementation of a group approach to genetic counselling. Fam Cancer 16 (1): 51-56, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
Fournier DM, Bazzell AF, Dains JE: Comparing Outcomes of Genetic Counseling Options in Breast and Ovarian Cancer: An Integrative Review . Oncol Nurs Forum 45 (1): 96-105, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
Schwartz MD, Valdimarsdottir HB, Peshkin BN, et al.: Randomized noninferiority trial of telephone versus in-person genetic counseling for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. J Clin Oncol 32 (7): 618-26, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
Kinney AY, Steffen LE, Brumbach BH, et al.: Randomized Noninferiority Trial of Telephone Delivery of BRCA1/2 Genetic Counseling Compared With In-Person Counseling: 1-Year Follow-Up. J Clin Oncol 34 (24): 2914-24, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
Kinney AY, Butler KM, Schwartz MD, et al.: Expanding access to BRCA1/2 genetic counseling with telephone delivery: a cluster randomized trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 106 (12): , 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
Athens BA, Caldwell SL, Umstead KL, et al.: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials to Assess Outcomes of Genetic Counseling. J Genet Couns 26 (5): 902-933, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
Bradbury AR, Patrick-Miller LJ, Egleston BL, et al.: Randomized Noninferiority Trial of Telephone vs In-Person Disclosure of Germline Cancer Genetic Test Results. J Natl Cancer Inst 110 (9): 985-993, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
Otten E, Birnie E, Ranchor AV, et al.: Telegenetics use in presymptomatic genetic counselling: patient evaluations on satisfaction and quality of care. Eur J Hum Genet 24 (4): 513-20, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
Buchanan AH, Datta SK, Skinner CS, et al.: Randomized Trial of Telegenetics vs. In-Person Cancer Genetic Counseling: Cost, Patient Satisfaction and Attendance. J Genet Couns 24 (6): 961-70, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Bradbury A, Patrick-Miller L, Harris D, et al.: Utilizing Remote Real-Time Videoconferencing to Expand Access to Cancer Genetic Services in Community Practices: A Multicenter Feasibility Study. J Med Internet Res 18 (2): e23, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
Solomons NM, Lamb AE, Lucas FL, et al.: Examination of the Patient-Focused Impact of Cancer Telegenetics Among a Rural Population: Comparison with Traditional In-Person Services. Telemed J E Health 24 (2): 130-138, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
Kentwell M, Dow E, Antill Y, et al.: Mainstreaming cancer genetics: A model integrating germline BRCA testing into routine ovarian cancer clinics. Gynecol Oncol 145 (1): 130-136, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
Senter L, O'Malley DM, Backes FJ, et al.: Genetic consultation embedded in a gynecologic oncology clinic improves compliance with guideline-based care. Gynecol Oncol 147 (1): 110-114, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
Bednar EM, Oakley HD, Sun CC, et al.: A universal genetic testing initiative for patients with high-grade, non-mucinous epithelial ovarian cancer and the implications for cancer treatment. Gynecol Oncol 146 (2): 399-404, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
Cohen SA, Nixon DM: A collaborative approach to cancer risk assessment services using genetic counselor extenders in a multi-system community hospital. Breast Cancer Res Treat 159 (3): 527-34, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
Colombo N, Huang G, Scambia G, et al.: Evaluation of a Streamlined Oncologist-Led BRCA Mutation Testing and Counseling Model for Patients With Ovarian Cancer. J Clin Oncol 36 (13): 1300-1307, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
Armstrong J, Toscano M, Kotchko N, et al.: Utilization and Outcomes of BRCA Genetic Testing and Counseling in a National Commercially Insured Population: The ABOUT Study. JAMA Oncol 1 (9): 1251-60, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
National Comprehensive Cancer Network: NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Genetic/Familial High-Risk Assessment: Breast, Ovarian, and Pancreatic. Version 1.2020. Plymouth Meeting, Pa: National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2019. Available online with free registration. Last accessed December 23, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
Society of Gynecologic Oncology: SGO Clinical Practice Statement: Genetic Testing for Ovarian Cancer. 2014. Available online. Last accessed May 08, 2020.[PUBMED Abstract]
Hampel H, Bennett RL, Buchanan A, et al.: A practice guideline from the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the National Society of Genetic Counselors: referral indications for cancer predisposition assessment. Genet Med 17 (1): 70-87, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Marth C, Hubalek M, Petru E, et al.: AGO Austria recommendations for genetic testing of patients with ovarian cancer. Wien Klin Wochenschr 127 (15-16): 652-4, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
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Zhang S, Royer R, Li S, et al.: Frequencies of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations among 1,342 unselected patients with invasive ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol 121 (2): 353-7, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
Kurian AW, Ward KC, Howlader N, et al.: Genetic Testing and Results in a Population-Based Cohort of Breast Cancer Patients and Ovarian Cancer Patients. J Clin Oncol 37 (15): 1305-1315, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
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Uyar D, Neary J, Monroe A, et al.: Implementation of a quality improvement project for universal genetic testing in women with ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol 149 (3): 565-569, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
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プライバシーおよび機密性は、遺伝病に対する集団スクリーニングなどの研究にも適用される。米国保健社会福祉省は、研究者に機密性証明書(Certificates of Confidentiality)を使用する権限を与えている。[
5
]この証明書は米国国立衛生研究所により発行され、「連邦訴訟、州訴訟、または地方民事訴訟、刑事訴訟、行政訴訟、立法手続きなどあらゆる訴訟手続きにおいて」どのような研究被験者でも個人情報を明らかにしなければならないことから研究者を保護している。機密性証明書により提供される保護は、発行日から研究の終了日と一致する満了日までに収集された個人を特定可能な情報に限られる。NIH Office of Extramural Researchの機密性証明書に関する方針および指導では、この期間中に収集された個人を特定可能なすべての情報が永久に保護されることを強調している。家族に基づく募集戦略に関して、Cancer Genetics Network Bioethics Committeeでは専門家集団が集合して、家系員へのアプローチに際して研究者が使用すべき推奨事項が策定された。[
6
]広範な研究戦略のために、さまざまなレベルの懸念がある。家族に基づく募集戦略には、潜在的な研究参加者に、個人情報が研究者によってどのように入手されたか、研究者が彼らに連絡を取っている理由、研究者が彼らについて何を知っているか、どのような目的で情報が使用されるか、彼らが参加を決定するかどうかを知らせることが必須である。[
6
]
「警告義務」:訴訟手続き、連邦法/州法、および専門家組織の勧告
「警告義務」では、善行および自律性という生命倫理学的構成要素と、訴訟手続き、法律、および専門家学会の推奨事項といった他の因子を比較検討する必要がある。2008年9月の時点で、National Council of State Legislaturesは、遺伝情報の開示に同意を義務付けた法律を有する州を記載している。「遺伝情報」の定義は、訴訟事例および州法と連邦法で用いられる用語により異なることがあり、一般に遺伝子検査および家族歴の情報を含んでいる。しかしながら、この定義は一般に現在の診断には適用されない。遺伝子診断は、特異的遺伝子に関連した障害に対する直接的な遺伝子検査、および特異的遺伝子が不明の障害、または複数の異なる遺伝子(遺伝的異質性)が関与する障害に対する間接的な遺伝子検査を通じて行われる。[
7
]警告義務に該当する州の判例法は4つある。[
8
]2つの判例では遺伝性がん素因症候群に対する検査を直接扱っている;一方の判例では差し迫った脅威を近親者に警告する精神療法医の義務を扱い、もう一方の判例では出産に関する決定のためのツールとしての遺伝子検査を扱っている。これらの判例は、表3に要約している。
表3.警告義務に該当する州の判例法
州の判例法
記述
要約
Tarasoff 対 Regents of the University of California 事件[
9
][
10
]
連邦レベルでは、個人的な健康情報を管理する厳格な非公開政策がある。[
8
]個人特定可能医療情報のプライバシー基準(Standards for Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information[Privacy Rule])は、1996年医療保険の相互運用性と説明責任に関する法律(Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act[HIPAA] of 1996)を要約しており、公共の利益が危機に曝されている場合に健康情報を同意なしに開示することは許されると認定している[
15
][
16
];そのため特定の状況下では、秘匿政策に以下のような例外がある:
米国遺伝カウンセラー学会(National Society of Genetic Counselors)[
20
]および国際遺伝看護学会(International Society of Nurses in Genetics)[
21
]は、患者の同意を得た場合に限るが、血縁者を含む第三者に対しては、要求に応じてあらゆる遺伝情報の開示を支持している。[
4
]遺伝カウンセリングの教義の1つは、クライアントにより放出されたか、開示の同意が法律上必要とされて提供される場合を除いてクライアントから受けた情報は機密として扱うことである。[
4
][
20
]
Privacy Ruleと同様に、U.S. Bioethics Commission[
22
]、米国人類遺伝学会(American Society of Human Genetics)[
23
]、および米国国立ヒトゲノム研究所(National Human Genome Research Institute:NHGRI)は、機密性に違反することが倫理的に受け入れられる例外的な状況を明らかにするため、以下に示すガイドラインを推奨している。[
4
][
8
]
GINAは、医療プライバシーおよび機密性の法律ならびに雇用および保険の決定に遺伝情報を含めることにより、HIPAA、アメリカ障害者法(Americans with Disabilities Act:ADA)、および従業員退職所得保障法(Employee Retirement Income Security Act:ERISA)の適用範囲を修正および/または拡張している。[
27
]またGINAの成立により、遺伝子検査の結果に基づく差別に対しては連邦政府による保護があるので、研究者および臨床家は臨床試験および適切な遺伝子検査への参加を促すことができる。GINAは、すべての州で満たされなければならない最低保護基準を設定した。しかしながら、より強固な法律が整備されている州に対しては、GINAは州法で規定された既存の保護を弱めていない。
しかしながら、GINAにはいくつか制限がある。
GINAは、米国軍兵士、退役軍人管理局を介して医療を受けている退役軍人、またはインディアン保健局(Indian Health Service)の対象者には適用されないが、これはGINAによって修正された法律がこれらの団体およびプログラムには適用されないためである。
この法律は、生命保険、長期医療保険、または身体障害保険には適用されない。GINAが雇用主提供の身体障害および生命保険の保護を提供していない場合でも、州によっては、雇用、遺伝的プライバシー、健康保険、健康保険の執行、生命、身体障害、および長期医療に加えてこれらの領域も含められている。NHGRIのGenome Statute and Legislation Databaseは、以下のテーマに関係する州法および法案についての検索可能な一覧を提供している:消費者向け遺伝子検査、雇用非差別および保険非差別、健康保険範囲、プライバシー、研究、および残存新生児スクリーニング検体の使用。
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