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医療専門家向け Childhood Testicular Cancer Treatment (PDQ®)

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This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of pediatric testicular cancer. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

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Incidence and Clinical Presentation

Testicular tumors are very rare in young boys and account for an incidence of 1% to 2% of all childhood tumors.[ 1 ][ 2 ] The most common testicular tumors are benign teratomas followed by malignant nonseminomatous germ cell tumors. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Childhood Extracranial Germ Cell Tumors Treatment for more information.)

Non–germ cell tumors such as sex cord–stromal tumors are exceedingly rare in prepubertal boys. In a small series, gonadal stromal tumors accounted for 8% to 13% of pediatric testicular tumors.[ 3 ][ 4 ] Most gonadal stromal tumors present as a painless testicular mass, while 10% to 20% of patients may have endocrine manifestations such as precocious puberty.[ 5 ] In newborns and infants, juvenile granulosa cell and Sertoli cell tumors are the most common stromal cell tumor. Juvenile granulosa cell tumors usually present in infancy (median age, 6 days) and Sertoli cell tumors present later in infancy (median age, 7 months). In older males, Leydig cell tumors are more common.[ 6 ] In a report of 12 patients with Leydig cell tumors (aged 4.2–14.7 years), precocious puberty was the presenting symptom in 7 of 12 patients.[ 7 ][Level of evidence: 3iiA] Large cell calcifying Sertoli cell tumors may indicate an underlying genetic predisposition, such as Peutz-Jeghers syndrome or Carney complex. These tumors may occur in both testes, and some patients may have a slow and indolent course.[ 8 ]

参考文献
  1. Hartke DM, Agarwal PK, Palmer JS: Testicular neoplasms in the prepubertal male. J Mens Health Gend 3 (2): 131-8, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Ahmed HU, Arya M, Muneer A, et al.: Testicular and paratesticular tumours in the prepubertal population. Lancet Oncol 11 (5): 476-83, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Pohl HG, Shukla AR, Metcalf PD, et al.: Prepubertal testis tumors: actual prevalence rate of histological types. J Urol 172 (6 Pt 1): 2370-2, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Schwentner C, Oswald J, Rogatsch H, et al.: Stromal testis tumors in infants. a report of two cases. Urology 62 (6): 1121, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Cecchetto G, Alaggio R, Bisogno G, et al.: Sex cord-stromal tumors of the testis in children. A clinicopathologic report from the Italian TREP project. J Pediatr Surg 45 (9): 1868-73, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Carmignani L, Colombo R, Gadda F, et al.: Conservative surgical therapy for leydig cell tumor. J Urol 178 (2): 507-11; discussion 511, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Luckie TM, Danzig M, Zhou S, et al.: A Multicenter Retrospective Review of Pediatric Leydig Cell Tumor of the Testis. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 41 (1): 74-76, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Lai JP, Lee CC, Crocker M, et al.: Isolated Large Cell Calcifying Sertoli Cell Tumor in a Young Boy, not Associated with Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome or Carney Complex. Ann Clin Lab Res 3 (1): 2, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Prognosis

The prognosis for sex cord–stromal tumors is usually excellent after orchiectomy.[ 1 ][ 2 ][ 3 ]; [ 4 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] In a review of the literature, 79 patients younger than 12 years were identified. No patient had high-risk pathological findings after orchiectomy, and none had evidence of occult metastatic disease, suggesting a role for a limited surveillance strategy.[ 5 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]

参考文献
  1. Agarwal PK, Palmer JS: Testicular and paratesticular neoplasms in prepubertal males. J Urol 176 (3): 875-81, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Dudani R, Giordano L, Sultania P, et al.: Juvenile granulosa cell tumor of testis: case report and review of literature. Am J Perinatol 25 (4): 229-31, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Cecchetto G, Alaggio R, Bisogno G, et al.: Sex cord-stromal tumors of the testis in children. A clinicopathologic report from the Italian TREP project. J Pediatr Surg 45 (9): 1868-73, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Hofmann M, Schlegel PG, Hippert F, et al.: Testicular sex cord stromal tumors: analysis of patients from the MAKEI study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (10): 1651-5, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Rove KO, Maroni PD, Cost CR, et al.: Pathologic Risk Factors in Pediatric and Adolescent Patients With Clinical Stage I Testicular Stromal Tumors. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 37 (8): e441-6, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Treatment of Childhood Testicular Cancer

Treatment options for childhood testicular cancer (non-germ cell) include the following:

  1. Surgery.

There are conflicting data about malignant potential in older males. Most case reports suggest that in pediatric patients, these tumors can be treated with surgery alone.[ 1 ][Level of evidence: 3iii]; [ 2 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]; [ 3 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDii] It is prudent to check alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels before surgery. Elevated AFP levels are usually indicative of a malignant germ cell tumor. However, AFP levels and decay in levels are often difficult to interpret in infants younger than 1 year.[ 4 ]

Evidence (surgery):

  1. In a study of patients prospectively reported to the German Maligne Keimzelltumoren (MAKEI) registry, 42 patients with sex cord–stromal tumors were identified. All tumors were confined to the testes. Patients were treated with surgery alone, according to specific germ cell tumor guidelines.[ 5 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]
  2. A French registry identified 11 boys with localized sex cord–stromal testicular tumors. All 11 boys were treated with surgery alone.[ 6 ][Level of evidence: 3iA]
  3. The benign behavior of pediatric non–germ cell testicular tumors has led to reports of testis-sparing surgery.[ 7 ][ 8 ][ 9 ] In one series of patients with Leydig cell tumors (aged 4.2–14.7 years), 3 of 12 patients were treated with enucleation alone, and 9 patients were treated with orchiectomy. All patients were alive at the last follow-up.[ 10 ][Level of evidence: 3iiA]

However, given the rarity of this tumor, the surgical approach in pediatrics has not been well defined.

参考文献
  1. Agarwal PK, Palmer JS: Testicular and paratesticular neoplasms in prepubertal males. J Urol 176 (3): 875-81, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Thomas JC, Ross JH, Kay R: Stromal testis tumors in children: a report from the prepubertal testis tumor registry. J Urol 166 (6): 2338-40, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Cecchetto G, Alaggio R, Bisogno G, et al.: Sex cord-stromal tumors of the testis in children. A clinicopathologic report from the Italian TREP project. J Pediatr Surg 45 (9): 1868-73, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Blohm ME, Vesterling-Hörner D, Calaminus G, et al.: Alpha 1-fetoprotein (AFP) reference values in infants up to 2 years of age. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 15 (2): 135-42, 1998 Mar-Apr.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Hofmann M, Schlegel PG, Hippert F, et al.: Testicular sex cord stromal tumors: analysis of patients from the MAKEI study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 60 (10): 1651-5, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Fresneau B, Orbach D, Faure-Conter C, et al.: Sex-Cord Stromal Tumors in Children and Teenagers: Results of the TGM-95 Study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 62 (12): 2114-9, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Cosentino M, Algaba F, Saldaña L, et al.: Juvenile granulosa cell tumor of the testis: a bilateral and synchronous case. Should testis-sparing surgery be mandatory? Urology 84 (3): 694-6, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Kao CS, Cornejo KM, Ulbright TM, et al.: Juvenile granulosa cell tumors of the testis: a clinicopathologic study of 70 cases with emphasis on its wide morphologic spectrum. Am J Surg Pathol 39 (9): 1159-69, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Emre S, Ozcan R, Elicevik M, et al.: Testis sparing surgery for Leydig cell pathologies in children. J Pediatr Urol 13 (1): 51.e1-51.e4, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Luckie TM, Danzig M, Zhou S, et al.: A Multicenter Retrospective Review of Pediatric Leydig Cell Tumor of the Testis. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 41 (1): 74-76, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation for Childhood Testicular Cancer

Information about National Cancer Institute (NCI)–supported clinical trials can be found on the NCI website. For information about clinical trials sponsored by other organizations, refer to the ClinicalTrials.gov website.

The following is an example of a national and/or institutional clinical trial that is currently being conducted:

Special Considerations for the Treatment of Children With Cancer

Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence of childhood cancer has been slowly increasing since 1975.[ 1 ] Referral to medical centers with multidisciplinary teams of cancer specialists experienced in treating cancers that occur in childhood and adolescence should be considered for children and adolescents with cancer. This multidisciplinary team approach incorporates the skills of the following health care professionals and others to ensure that children receive treatment, supportive care, and rehabilitation that will achieve optimal survival and quality of life:

(Refer to the PDQ Supportive and Palliative Care summaries for specific information about supportive care for children and adolescents with cancer.)

Guidelines for pediatric cancer centers and their role in the treatment of pediatric patients with cancer have been outlined by the American Academy of Pediatrics.[ 2 ] At these pediatric cancer centers, clinical trials are available for most types of cancer that occur in children and adolescents, and the opportunity to participate in these trials is offered to most patients and their families. Clinical trials for children and adolescents diagnosed with cancer are generally designed to compare potentially better therapy with therapy that is currently accepted as standard. Most of the progress made in identifying curative therapy for childhood cancers has been achieved through clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.

Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved for children and adolescents with cancer. Between 1975 and 2010, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[ 3 ] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because cancer therapy side effects may persist or develop months or years after treatment. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer for specific information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors.)

Childhood cancer is a rare disease, with about 15,000 cases diagnosed annually in the United States in individuals younger than 20 years.[ 4 ] The U.S. Rare Diseases Act of 2002 defines a rare disease as one that affects populations smaller than 200,000 persons. Therefore, all pediatric cancers are considered rare.

The designation of a rare tumor is not uniform among pediatric and adult groups. Adult rare cancers are defined as those with an annual incidence of fewer than six cases per 100,000 people, and they are estimated to account for up to 24% of all cancers diagnosed in the European Union and about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the United States.[ 5 ][ 6 ] Also, the designation of a pediatric rare tumor is not uniform among international groups, as follows:

These rare cancers are extremely challenging to study because of the low incidence of patients with any individual diagnosis, the predominance of rare cancers in the adolescent population, and the lack of clinical trials for adolescents with rare cancers.

Information about these tumors may also be found in sources relevant to adults with cancer such as the PDQ summary on adult Testicular Cancer Treatment.

参考文献
  1. Smith MA, Seibel NL, Altekruse SF, et al.: Outcomes for children and adolescents with cancer: challenges for the twenty-first century. J Clin Oncol 28 (15): 2625-34, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Corrigan JJ, Feig SA; American Academy of Pediatrics: Guidelines for pediatric cancer centers. Pediatrics 113 (6): 1833-5, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Smith MA, Altekruse SF, Adamson PC, et al.: Declining childhood and adolescent cancer mortality. Cancer 120 (16): 2497-506, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, et al.: Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 64 (2): 83-103, 2014 Mar-Apr.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Gatta G, Capocaccia R, Botta L, et al.: Burden and centralised treatment in Europe of rare tumours: results of RARECAREnet-a population-based study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1022-1039, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. DeSantis CE, Kramer JL, Jemal A: The burden of rare cancers in the United States. CA Cancer J Clin 67 (4): 261-272, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Ferrari A, Bisogno G, De Salvo GL, et al.: The challenge of very rare tumours in childhood: the Italian TREP project. Eur J Cancer 43 (4): 654-9, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Pappo AS, Krailo M, Chen Z, et al.: Infrequent tumor initiative of the Children's Oncology Group: initial lessons learned and their impact on future plans. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 5011-6, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al., eds.: SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2012. Bethesda, Md: National Cancer Institute, 2015. Also available online. Last accessed December 10, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
Changes to This Summary (12/12/2019)

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

This is a new summary.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® - NCI's Comprehensive Cancer Database pages.

About This PDQ Summary

Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of pediatric testicular cancer. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

Reviewers and Updates

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Board members review recently published articles each month to determine whether an article should:

Changes to the summaries are made through a consensus process in which Board members evaluate the strength of the evidence in the published articles and determine how the article should be included in the summary.

Any comments or questions about the summary content should be submitted to Cancer.gov through the NCI website's Email Us. Do not contact the individual Board Members with questions or comments about the summaries. Board members will not respond to individual inquiries.

Levels of Evidence

Some of the reference citations in this summary are accompanied by a level-of-evidence designation. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches. The PDQ Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board uses a formal evidence ranking system in developing its level-of-evidence designations.

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The preferred citation for this PDQ summary is:

PDQ® Pediatric Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Childhood Testicular Cancer Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/types/testicular/hp/child-testicular-treatment-pdq. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>.

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Based on the strength of the available evidence, treatment options may be described as either “standard” or “under clinical evaluation.” These classifications should not be used as a basis for insurance reimbursement determinations. More information on insurance coverage is available on Cancer.gov on the Managing Cancer Care page.

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