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医療専門家向け Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment (PDQ®)

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This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Adult Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

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General Information About Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL)

The non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL) are a heterogeneous group of lymphoproliferative malignancies with differing patterns of behavior and responses to treatment.[ 1 ]

Like Hodgkin lymphoma, NHL usually originates in lymphoid tissues and can spread to other organs. NHL, however, is much less predictable than Hodgkin lymphoma and has a far greater predilection to disseminate to extranodal sites. The prognosis depends on the histologic type, stage, and treatment.

Incidence and Mortality

Estimated new cases and deaths from NHL in the United States in 2020:[ 2 ]

Anatomy

NHL usually originates in lymphoid tissues.

Lymph system; drawing shows the lymph vessels and lymph organs including the lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. One inset shows the inside structure of a lymph node and the attached lymph vessels with arrows showing how the lymph (clear fluid) moves into and out of the lymph node. Another inset shows a close up of bone marrow with blood cells.

画像を拡大する

Anatomy of the lymph system.

Prognosis and Survival

NHL can be divided into two prognostic groups: the indolent lymphomas and the aggressive lymphomas.

Indolent NHL types have a relatively good prognosis with a median survival as long as 20 years, but they usually are not curable in advanced clinical stages.[ 3 ] Early-stage (stage I and stage II) indolent NHL can be effectively treated with radiation therapy alone. Most of the indolent types are nodular (or follicular) in morphology.

The aggressive type of NHL has a shorter natural history, but a significant number of these patients can be cured with intensive combination chemotherapy regimens.

In general, with modern treatment of patients with NHL, overall survival at 5 years is over 60%. Of patients with aggressive NHL, more than 50% can be cured. The vast majority of relapses occur in the first 2 years after therapy. The risk of late relapse is higher in patients who manifest both indolent and aggressive histologies.[ 4 ]

While indolent NHL is responsive to immunotherapy, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy, a continuous rate of relapse is usually seen in advanced stages. Patients, however, can often be re-treated with considerable success as long as the disease histology remains low grade. Patients who present with or convert to aggressive forms of NHL may have sustained complete remissions with combination chemotherapy regimens or aggressive consolidation with marrow or stem cell support.[ 5 ][ 6 ]

Related Summaries

Other PDQ summaries containing information related to non-Hodgkin lymphoma treatment include the following:

参考文献
  1. Shankland KR, Armitage JO, Hancock BW: Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Lancet 380 (9844): 848-57, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. American Cancer Society: Cancer Facts and Figures 2020. Atlanta, Ga: American Cancer Society, 2020. Available online. Last accessed May 12, 2020.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Tan D, Horning SJ, Hoppe RT, et al.: Improvements in observed and relative survival in follicular grade 1-2 lymphoma during 4 decades: the Stanford University experience. Blood 122 (6): 981-7, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Cabanillas F, Velasquez WS, Hagemeister FB, et al.: Clinical, biologic, and histologic features of late relapses in diffuse large cell lymphoma. Blood 79 (4): 1024-8, 1992.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Bastion Y, Sebban C, Berger F, et al.: Incidence, predictive factors, and outcome of lymphoma transformation in follicular lymphoma patients. J Clin Oncol 15 (4): 1587-94, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Yuen AR, Kamel OW, Halpern J, et al.: Long-term survival after histologic transformation of low-grade follicular lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 13 (7): 1726-33, 1995.[PUBMED Abstract]
Late Effects of Treatment for Adult NHL

Late effects of treatment for non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) have been observed. Pelvic radiation therapy and large cumulative doses of cyclophosphamide have been associated with a high risk of permanent sterility.[ 1 ] For as many as three decades after diagnosis, patients are at a significantly elevated risk of developing second primary cancers, especially the following:[ 1 ][ 2 ][ 3 ]

Left ventricular dysfunction was a significant late effect in long-term survivors of high-grade NHL who received more than 200 mg/m² of doxorubicin.[ 4 ][ 5 ]

Myelodysplastic syndrome and acute myelogenous leukemia are late complications of myeloablative therapy with autologous bone marrow or peripheral blood stem cell support, as well as conventional chemotherapy-containing alkylating agents.[ 1 ][ 6 ][ 7 ][ 8 ][ 9 ][ 10 ][ 11 ][ 12 ][ 13 ] Most of these patients show clonal hematopoiesis even before the transplantation, suggesting that the hematologic injury usually occurs during induction or reinduction chemotherapy.[ 8 ][ 14 ][ 15 ] With a median 10-year follow-up after autologous bone marrow transplantation (BMT) with conditioning using cyclophosphamide and total-body radiation therapy, in a series of 605 patients, the incidence of a second malignancy was 21%, and 10% of those were solid tumors.[ 16 ]

Successful pregnancies with children born free of congenital abnormalities have been reported in young women after autologous BMT.[ 17 ]

Some patients have osteopenia or osteoporosis at the start of therapy; bone density may worsen after therapy for lymphoma.[ 18 ]

参考文献
  1. Mudie NY, Swerdlow AJ, Higgins CD, et al.: Risk of second malignancy after non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a British Cohort Study. J Clin Oncol 24 (10): 1568-74, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Travis LB, Curtis RE, Glimelius B, et al.: Second cancers among long-term survivors of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 85 (23): 1932-7, 1993.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Hemminki K, Lenner P, Sundquist J, et al.: Risk of subsequent solid tumors after non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: effect of diagnostic age and time since diagnosis. J Clin Oncol 26 (11): 1850-7, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Haddy TB, Adde MA, McCalla J, et al.: Late effects in long-term survivors of high-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. J Clin Oncol 16 (6): 2070-9, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Moser EC, Noordijk EM, van Leeuwen FE, et al.: Long-term risk of cardiovascular disease after treatment for aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Blood 107 (7): 2912-9, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Darrington DL, Vose JM, Anderson JR, et al.: Incidence and characterization of secondary myelodysplastic syndrome and acute myelogenous leukemia following high-dose chemoradiotherapy and autologous stem-cell transplantation for lymphoid malignancies. J Clin Oncol 12 (12): 2527-34, 1994.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Stone RM, Neuberg D, Soiffer R, et al.: Myelodysplastic syndrome as a late complication following autologous bone marrow transplantation for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 12 (12): 2535-42, 1994.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Armitage JO, Carbone PP, Connors JM, et al.: Treatment-related myelodysplasia and acute leukemia in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma patients. J Clin Oncol 21 (5): 897-906, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. André M, Mounier N, Leleu X, et al.: Second cancers and late toxicities after treatment of aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma with the ACVBP regimen: a GELA cohort study on 2837 patients. Blood 103 (4): 1222-8, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Oddou S, Vey N, Viens P, et al.: Second neoplasms following high-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation for malignant lymphomas: a report of six cases in a cohort of 171 patients from a single institution. Leuk Lymphoma 31 (1-2): 187-94, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Lenz G, Dreyling M, Schiegnitz E, et al.: Moderate increase of secondary hematologic malignancies after myeloablative radiochemotherapy and autologous stem-cell transplantation in patients with indolent lymphoma: results of a prospective randomized trial of the German Low Grade Lymphoma Study Group. J Clin Oncol 22 (24): 4926-33, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  12. McLaughlin P, Estey E, Glassman A, et al.: Myelodysplasia and acute myeloid leukemia following therapy for indolent lymphoma with fludarabine, mitoxantrone, and dexamethasone (FND) plus rituximab and interferon alpha. Blood 105 (12): 4573-5, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  13. Morton LM, Curtis RE, Linet MS, et al.: Second malignancy risks after non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia: differences by lymphoma subtype. J Clin Oncol 28 (33): 4935-44, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  14. Mach-Pascual S, Legare RD, Lu D, et al.: Predictive value of clonality assays in patients with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma undergoing autologous bone marrow transplant: a single institution study. Blood 91 (12): 4496-503, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  15. Lillington DM, Micallef IN, Carpenter E, et al.: Detection of chromosome abnormalities pre-high-dose treatment in patients developing therapy-related myelodysplasia and secondary acute myelogenous leukemia after treatment for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 19 (9): 2472-81, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  16. Brown JR, Yeckes H, Friedberg JW, et al.: Increasing incidence of late second malignancies after conditioning with cyclophosphamide and total-body irradiation and autologous bone marrow transplantation for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 23 (10): 2208-14, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  17. Jackson GH, Wood A, Taylor PR, et al.: Early high dose chemotherapy intensification with autologous bone marrow transplantation in lymphoma associated with retention of fertility and normal pregnancies in females. Scotland and Newcastle Lymphoma Group, UK. Leuk Lymphoma 28 (1-2): 127-32, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  18. Westin JR, Thompson MA, Cataldo VD, et al.: Zoledronic acid for prevention of bone loss in patients receiving primary therapy for lymphomas: a prospective, randomized controlled phase III trial. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk 13 (2): 99-105, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
Cellular Classification of Adult NHL

A pathologist should be considered for consultation before a biopsy because some studies require special preparation of tissue (e.g., frozen tissue). Knowledge of cell surface markers and immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor gene rearrangements may help with diagnostic and therapeutic decisions. The clonal excess of light-chain immunoglobulin may differentiate malignant from reactive cells. Since the prognosis and the approach to treatment are influenced by histopathology, outside biopsy specimens should be carefully reviewed by a hematopathologist who is experienced in diagnosing lymphomas. Although lymph node biopsies are recommended whenever possible, sometimes immunophenotypic data are sufficient to allow diagnosis of lymphoma when fine-needle aspiration cytology is preferred.[ 1 ][ 2 ]

Historical Classification Systems

Historically, uniform treatment of patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) has been hampered by the lack of a uniform classification system. In 1982, results of a consensus study were published as the Working Formulation.[ 3 ] The Working Formulation combined results from six major classification systems into one classification. This allowed comparison of studies from different institutions and countries. The Rappaport classification, which also follows, is no longer in common use.

Table 1. Historical Classification Systems for Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL)
Working Formulation Rappaport Classification
Low grade  
A. Small lymphocytic, consistent with chronic lymphocytic leukemia Diffuse lymphocytic, well-differentiated
B. Follicular, predominantly small-cleaved cell Nodular lymphocytic, poorly differentiated
C. Follicular, mixed small-cleaved, and large cell Nodular mixed, lymphocytic, and histiocytic
Intermediate grade  
D. Follicular, predominantly large cell Nodular histiocytic
E. Diffuse, small-cleaved cell Diffuse lymphocytic, poorly differentiated
F. Diffuse mixed, small and large cell Diffuse mixed, lymphocytic, and histiocytic
G. Diffuse, large cell, cleaved, or noncleaved cell Diffuse histiocytic
High grade  
H. Immunoblastic, large cell Diffuse histiocytic
I. Lymphoblastic, convoluted, or nonconvoluted cell Diffuse lymphoblastic
J. Small noncleaved-cell, Burkitt, or non-Burkitt Diffuse undifferentiated Burkitt or non-Burkitt

Current Classification Systems

As the understanding of NHL has improved and as the histopathologic diagnosis of NHL has become more sophisticated with the use of immunologic and genetic techniques, a number of new pathologic entities have been described.[ 4 ] In addition, the understanding and treatment of many of the previously described pathologic subtypes have changed. As a result, the Working Formulation has become outdated and less useful to clinicians and pathologists. Thus, European and American pathologists have proposed a new classification, the Revised European American Lymphoma (REAL) classification.[ 5 ][ 6 ][ 7 ][ 8 ] Since 1995, members of the European and American Hematopathology societies have been collaborating on a new World Health Organization (WHO) classification, which represents an updated version of the REAL system.[ 9 ][ 10 ]

The WHO modification of the REAL classification recognizes three major categories of lymphoid malignancies based on morphology and cell lineage: B-cell neoplasms, T-cell/natural killer (NK)-cell neoplasms, and Hodgkin lymphoma (HL). Both lymphomas and lymphoid leukemias are included in this classification because both solid and circulating phases are present in many lymphoid neoplasms and distinction between them is artificial. For example, B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and B-cell small lymphocytic lymphoma are simply different manifestations of the same neoplasm, as are lymphoblastic lymphomas and acute lymphocytic leukemias. Within the B-cell and T-cell categories, two subdivisions are recognized: precursor neoplasms, which correspond to the earliest stages of differentiation, and more mature differentiated neoplasms.[ 9 ][ 10 ]

Updated REAL/WHO classification

    B-cell neoplasms
  1. Precursor B-cell neoplasm: precursor B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoblastic lymphoma (LBL).
  2. Peripheral B-cell neoplasms.
    1. B-cell CLL/small lymphocytic lymphoma.
    2. B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia.
    3. Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma/immunocytoma.
    4. Mantle cell lymphoma.
    5. Follicular lymphoma.
    6. Extranodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) type.
    7. Nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma (± monocytoid B-cells).
    8. Splenic marginal zone lymphoma (± villous lymphocytes).
    9. Hairy cell leukemia.
    10. Plasmacytoma/plasma cell myeloma.
    11. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.
    12. Burkitt lymphoma.
    T-cell and putative NK-cell neoplasms
  1. Precursor T-cell neoplasm: precursor T-acute lymphoblastic leukemia/LBL.
  2. Peripheral T-cell and NK-cell neoplasms.
    1. T-cell CLL/prolymphocytic leukemia.
    2. T-cell granular lymphocytic leukemia.
    3. Mycosis fungoides (including Sézary syndrome).
    4. Peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise characterized.
    5. Hepatosplenic gamma/delta T-cell lymphoma.
    6. Subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma.
    7. Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma.
    8. Extranodal T-/NK-cell lymphoma, nasal type.
    9. Enteropathy-type intestinal T-cell lymphoma.
    10. Adult T-cell lymphoma/leukemia (human T-lymphotrophic virus [HTLV] 1+).
    11. Anaplastic large cell lymphoma, primary systemic type.
    12. Anaplastic large cell lymphoma, primary cutaneous type.
    13. Aggressive NK-cell leukemia.
    HL
  1. Nodular lymphocyte-predominant HL.
  2. Classical HL.
    1. Nodular sclerosis HL.
    2. Lymphocyte-rich classical HL.
    3. Mixed-cellularity HL.
    4. Lymphocyte-depleted HL.

The REAL classification encompasses all the lymphoproliferative neoplasms. Refer to the following PDQ summaries for more information:

PDQ modification of REAL classification of lymphoproliferative diseases

  1. Plasma cell disorders. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Plasma Cell Neoplasms (Including Multiple Myeloma) Treatment for more information.)
    1. Bone.
    2. Extramedullary.
      1. Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance.
      2. Plasmacytoma.
      3. Multiple myeloma.
      4. Amyloidosis.
  2. HL. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)
    1. Nodular sclerosis HL.
    2. Lymphocyte-rich classical HL.
    3. Mixed-cellularity HL.
    4. Lymphocyte-depleted HL.
  3. Indolent lymphoma/leukemia.
    1. Follicular lymphoma (follicular small-cleaved cell [grade 1], follicular mixed small-cleaved, and large cell [grade 2], and diffuse, small-cleaved cell).
    2. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treatment for more information.)
    3. Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (Waldenström macroglobulinemia).
    4. Extranodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma (MALT lymphoma).
    5. Nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma (monocytoid B-cell lymphoma).
    6. Splenic marginal zone lymphoma (splenic lymphoma with villous lymphocytes).
    7. Hairy cell leukemia. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Hairy Cell Leukemia Treatment for more information.)
    8. Mycosis fungoides (including Sézary syndrome). (Refer to the PDQ summary on Mycosis Fungoides (Including Sézary Syndrome) Treatment for more information.)
    9. T-cell granular lymphocytic leukemia. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treatment for more information.)
    10. Primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma/lymphomatoid papulosis (CD30-positive).
    11. Nodular lymphocyte–predominant Hodgkin lymphoma. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)
  4. Aggressive lymphoma/leukemia.
    1. Diffuse large cell lymphoma (includes diffuse mixed-cell, diffuse large cell, immunoblastic, and T-cell rich large B-cell lymphoma).

      Distinguish:

      1. Mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma.
      2. Follicular large cell lymphoma (grade 3).
      3. Anaplastic large cell lymphoma (CD30-positive).
      4. Extranodal NK-/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type/aggressive NK-cell leukemia/blastic NK-cell lymphoma.
      5. Lymphomatoid granulomatosis (angiocentric pulmonary B-cell lymphoma).
      6. Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma.
      7. Peripheral T-cell lymphoma, unspecified.
      8. Enteropathy-type T-cell lymphoma.
      9. Intravascular large B-cell lymphoma.
    2. Burkitt lymphoma/Burkitt cell leukemia/Burkitt-like lymphoma.
    3. Precursor B-cell or T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma/leukemia. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment for more information.)
    4. Primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Primary CNS Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)
    5. Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (HTLV 1+).
    6. Mantle cell lymphoma.
    7. Posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorder.
    8. AIDS-related lymphoma. (Refer to the PDQ summary on AIDS-Related Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)
    9. True histiocytic lymphoma.
    10. Primary effusion lymphoma.
    11. B-cell or T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treatment for more information.)
    12. Plasmablastic lymphoma.
参考文献
  1. Zeppa P, Marino G, Troncone G, et al.: Fine-needle cytology and flow cytometry immunophenotyping and subclassification of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a critical review of 307 cases with technical suggestions. Cancer 102 (1): 55-65, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Young NA, Al-Saleem T: Diagnosis of lymphoma by fine-needle aspiration cytology using the revised European-American classification of lymphoid neoplasms. Cancer 87 (6): 325-45, 1999.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. National Cancer Institute sponsored study of classifications of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas: summary and description of a working formulation for clinical usage. The Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Pathologic Classification Project. Cancer 49 (10): 2112-35, 1982.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Pugh WC: Is the working formulation adequate for the classification of the low grade lymphomas? Leuk Lymphoma 10 (Suppl 1): 1-8, 1993.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Harris NL, Jaffe ES, Stein H, et al.: A revised European-American classification of lymphoid neoplasms: a proposal from the International Lymphoma Study Group. Blood 84 (5): 1361-92, 1994.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Pittaluga S, Bijnens L, Teodorovic I, et al.: Clinical analysis of 670 cases in two trials of the European Organization for the Research and Treatment of Cancer Lymphoma Cooperative Group subtyped according to the Revised European-American Classification of Lymphoid Neoplasms: a comparison with the Working Formulation. Blood 87 (10): 4358-67, 1996.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Armitage JO, Weisenburger DD: New approach to classifying non-Hodgkin's lymphomas: clinical features of the major histologic subtypes. Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Classification Project. J Clin Oncol 16 (8): 2780-95, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. A clinical evaluation of the International Lymphoma Study Group classification of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. The Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Classification Project. Blood 89 (11): 3909-18, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Pileri SA, Milani M, Fraternali-Orcioni G, et al.: From the R.E.A.L. Classification to the upcoming WHO scheme: a step toward universal categorization of lymphoma entities? Ann Oncol 9 (6): 607-12, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Society for Hematopathology Program: Society for Hematopathology Program. Am J Surg Pathol 21 (1): 114-121, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
Indolent NHL

Indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) includes the following subtypes:

Follicular Lymphoma

Follicular lymphoma comprises 20% of all NHL and as many as 70% of the indolent lymphomas reported in American and European clinical trials.[ 1 ][ 2 ][ 3 ] Most patients with follicular lymphoma are age 50 years and older and present with widespread disease at diagnosis. Nodal involvement is most common and is often accompanied by splenic and bone marrow disease. Rearrangement of the BCL2 gene is present in more than 90% of patients with follicular lymphoma; overexpression of the BCL2 protein is associated with the inability to eradicate the lymphoma by inhibiting apoptosis.[ 4 ]

Prognosis

Despite the advanced stage, the median survival ranges from 8 to 15 years, leading to the designation of being indolent.[ 5 ][ 6 ][ 7 ] Patients with advanced-stage follicular lymphoma are not cured with current therapeutic options. The rate of relapse is fairly consistent over time, even in patients who have achieved complete responses to treatment.[ 8 ] Watchful waiting, i.e., the deferring of treatment until the patient becomes symptomatic, is an option for patients with advanced-stage follicular lymphoma.[ 9 ][ 10 ] An international index for follicular lymphoma (i.e., the Follicular Lymphoma International Prognostic Index [FLIPI]) [ 11 ][ 12 ][ 13 ] identified five significant risk factors prognostic of overall survival (OS):

  1. Age (≤60 years vs. >60 years).
  2. Serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (normal vs. elevated).
  3. Stage (stage I or stage II vs. stage III or stage IV).
  4. Hemoglobin level (≥120 g/L vs. <120 g/L).
  5. Number of nodal areas (≤4 vs. >4).

Patients with one risk factor or none have an 85% 10-year survival rate, and three or more risk factors confer a 40% 10-year survival rate.[ 11 ] In a revised FLIPI-2, an elevated beta-2-microglobulin and lymph node size of more than 6 cm are proposed prognostic factors instead of serum LDH and the number of nodal areas.[ 14 ] Although the FLIPI and FLIPI-2 indices can predict progression-free survival (PFS) and OS, the scores cannot be used to establish the need for therapy, nor can they be used to predict response to therapy.[ 11 ][ 14 ] The primary use of FLIPI or FLIPI-2 is to assure a balance of prognostic factors or to define entry requirements in randomized clinical trials. Individuals with an adverse FLIPI score may well benefit from watchful waiting or may respond well to initial therapy. An alternative prognostic index using only beta-2-microglobulin and initial bone marrow involvement (PRIMA-PI) has the disadvantage of requiring an invasive test not usually required outside the context of a clinical trial.[ 15 ]

Two retrospective analyses identified a high-risk group that had a 50% OS rate at 5 years when relapse occurred after induction chemoimmunotherapy at 24 or 30 months; this has not been validated in prospective studies or an independent cohort.[ 16 ][ 17 ] A third retrospective analysis of 296 patients who received bendamustine-rituximab found a 2-year OS rate of 38% (95% confidence interval [CI], 20%−55%) after progression of disease at 24 months (POD24). Most of these patients (76%) had transformed disease (histologic progression to diffuse large B-cell lymphoma).[ 18 ] These higher-risk POD24 patients represent a target population for clinical trials.

Follicular, small-cleaved cell lymphoma and follicular mixed small-cleaved and large cell lymphoma do not have reproducibly different disease-free survival or OS.

Therapeutic approaches

Because of the often indolent clinical course and the lack of symptoms in some patients with follicular lymphoma, watchful waiting remains a standard of care during the initial encounter and for patients with slow asymptomatic relapsing disease. When therapy is required, numerous therapeutic options may be employed in varying sequences with an OS equivalence at 5 to 10 years.[ 9 ][ 19 ][ 20 ][ 21 ] Rituximab can be given alone or in combination with various chemotherapy options.[ 21 ][ 22 ] Rituximab can also be combined with the immunomodulating-agent lenalidomide to avoid the short- and long-term toxicities of cytotoxic agents.[ 23 ][ 24 ][ 25 ] Another anti–CD20 monoclonal antibody, obinutuzumab, can be administered with combination chemotherapy.[ 26 ] Inhibitors of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) are also effective in patients with relapsed or refractory disease.[ 27 ][ 28 ][ 29 ][ 30 ] Consolidation therapy for relapsed disease after reinduction therapy using autologous stem cell transplant (SCT) or allogeneic SCT can be considered.[ 31 ]

Follicular lymphoma in situ and primary follicular lymphoma of the duodenum are particularly indolent variants that rarely progress and rarely require therapy.[ 32 ][ 33 ] A so-called pediatric-type nodal follicular lymphoma has indolent behavior and rarely recurs; adult patients with this histologic variant are characterized by a lack of BCL2 rearrangement in conjunction with a Ki-67 proliferation index greater than 30% and a localized stage I presentation.[ 34 ]

Patients with indolent lymphoma may experience a relapse with a more aggressive histology. If the clinical pattern of relapse suggests that the disease is behaving in a more aggressive manner, a biopsy can be performed, if feasible.[ 35 ] Documentation of conversion to a more aggressive histology requires an appropriate change to a therapy applicable to that histologic type.[ 36 ] Rapid growth or discordant growth between various disease sites may indicate a histologic conversion.[ 35 ] The risk of histologic transformation was 30% by 10 years in a retrospective review of 325 patients from diagnosis between 1972 and 1999.[ 37 ] In this series, high-risk factors for subsequent histologic transformation were advanced stage, high-risk FLIPI, and expectant management (as opposed to treatment being initiated at diagnosis). The 5-year OS rate was more than 50% for patients who had biopsy-proven, aggressive-histology transformation in several multicenter cohort studies employing rituximab plus anthracycline or platinum-based chemotherapy, or similar therapy followed by autologous or allogeneic SCT.[ 35 ][ 38 ][ 39 ]

In a prospective nonrandomized study, at a median follow-up of 6.8 years, 379 (14%) of 2,652 patients subsequently transformed to a more aggressive histology after an initial diagnosis of follicular lymphoma.[ 40 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] The median OS after subsequent transformation was 5 years; however, among 47 patients with evidence of transformation in conjunction with follicular lymphoma at the time of initial diagnosis, the OS was no worse than that of the other nontransformed patients (5-year OS, 88%; 95% CI, 74%–95%).

Lymphoplasmacytic Lymphoma (Waldenström Macroglobulinemia)

Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma is usually associated with a monoclonal serum paraprotein of immunoglobulin M (IgM) type (Waldenström macroglobulinemia).[ 41 ] Most patients have bone marrow, lymph node, and splenic involvement, and some patients may develop hyperviscosity syndrome. Most patients with Waldenström macroglobulinemia carry the MYD88 mutation, which some pathologists consider pathognomonic for the disease.[ 42 ] Other lymphomas may also be associated with serum paraproteins. Patients with lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma should be checked for associated hepatitis C virus infection.

Asymptomatic patients can be monitored for evidence of disease progression without immediate need for chemotherapy.[ 9 ][ 43 ][ 44 ]

Prognostic factors associated with symptoms requiring therapy include the following:

Therapeutic approaches

The management of lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma is similar to that of other low-grade lymphomas, especially diffuse, small lymphocytic lymphoma/chronic lymphocytic leukemia.[ 45 ][ 46 ] If the viscosity relative to water is greater than four, the patient may have manifestations of hyperviscosity. Plasmapheresis is useful for temporary, acute symptoms (such as retinopathy, congestive heart failure, and central nervous system [CNS] dysfunction) but can be combined with chemotherapy for prolonged control of the disease. Symptomatic patients with a serum viscosity of not more than four are usually started directly on chemotherapy. Therapy may be required to correct hemolytic anemia in patients with chronic cold agglutinin disease; rituximab, cyclophosphamide, and steroids are often employed.[ 44 ] Occasionally, a heated room is required for patients whose cold agglutinins become activated by even minor chilling.

First-line regimens include rituximab and ibrutinib, rituximab alone, the nucleoside analogs, and alkylating agents, either as single agents or as part of combination chemotherapy.[ 47 ][ 48 ][ 49 ][ 50 ][ 51 ] In a randomized prospective trial, 150 symptomatic patients (including previously untreated and relapsing patients) received either ibrutinib and rituximab or rituximab and a placebo. With a median follow-up of 2.5 years, the PFS favored the ibrutinib-and-rituximab arm (82%) versus the rituximab-and-placebo arm (28%) (hazard ratio, 0.20; 95% CI, 0.11–0.38; P < .001), and the OS at 30 months was no different in the two arms (OS, 92%–94%).[ 51 ][Level of evidence: 1iDiii] A phase II trial of 30 patients studied single-agent ibrutinib in previously untreated Waldenström macroglobulinemia patients. With a median follow-up of 15 months, the objective response rate was 83%, and the 18-month PFS rate was 92% (95% CI, 73%–98%).[ 52 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Rituximab showed 60% to 80% response rates in previously untreated patients, but close monitoring of the serum IgM is required because of a sudden rise in this paraprotein at the start of therapy.[ 47 ][ 53 ][ 54 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] The rise of IgM after rituximab can be avoided with the concomitant use of an alkylating agent, such as cyclophosphamide or the proteosome inhibitor bortezomib.[ 44 ][ 55 ][ 56 ] A combination of bortezomib, dexamethasone, and rituximab has been used with avoidance of an IgM rebound.[ 57 ][ 58 ][ 59 ] The nucleoside analogs 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine and fludarabine have shown similar response rates for previously untreated patients with lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma.[ 50 ][ 60 ][ 61 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Single-agent alkylators, bendamustine, bortezomib, and combination chemotherapy with or without rituximab also show similar response rates.[ 50 ][ 55 ][ 62 ][ 63 ][ 64 ][ 65 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] In the rare case of lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma involving the central nervous system (Bing-Neel syndrome), ibrutinib resulted in an 85% response rate in an anecdotal series of 28 patients.[ 66 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Myeloablative therapy with autologous or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell support is under clinical evaluation.[ 67 ][ 68 ][ 69 ][ 70 ] Candidates for this approach should avoid long-term use of alkylating agents or purine nucleoside analogs, which can deplete hematopoietic stem cells or predispose patients to myelodysplasia or acute leukemia.[ 47 ][ 71 ] After relapse from alkylating-agent therapy, 92 patients with lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma were randomly assigned to either fludarabine or cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone. Although relapse-free survival favored fludarabine (median duration of 19 months vs. 3 months, P < .01), no difference was observed in OS.[ 72 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDii]

Marginal Zone Lymphoma

Marginal zone lymphomas were previously included among the diffuse, small lymphocytic lymphomas. When marginal zone lymphomas involve the nodes, they are called monocytoid B-cell lymphomas or nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphomas, and when they involve extranodal sites (e.g., gastrointestinal tract, thyroid, lung, breast, orbit, and skin), they are called mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) lymphomas.[ 73 ][ 74 ] A prognostic index for all of the marginal zone lymphomas has three adverse prognostic factors: age 70 years or older, stage III or stage IV disease, and high LDH level.[ 75 ] Fewer than 10% of patients transform to a higher-grade lymphoma; risk factors in one retrospective review included elevated LDH, more than four nodal sites at the time of initial diagnosis of marginal zone lymphoma, and failure to achieve complete response after initial treatment.[ 76 ]

Gastric MALT

Many patients have a history of autoimmune disease, such as Hashimoto thyroiditis or Sjögren syndrome, or of Helicobacter gastritis. Most patients present with stage I or stage II extranodal disease, which is most often in the stomach. Treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection may resolve most cases of localized gastric involvement.[ 77 ][ 78 ] After standard antibiotic regimens, 50% of patients show resolution of gastric MALT by endoscopy after 3 months. Other patients may show resolution after 12 to 18 months of observation. Of the patients who attain complete remission, 30% demonstrate monoclonality by immunoglobulin heavy chain rearrangement on stomach biopsies with a 5-year median follow-up.[ 79 ] The clinical implication of this finding is unknown. Translocation t(11;18) in patients with gastric MALT predicts for poor response to antibiotic therapy, for H. pylori–negative testing, and for poor response to oral alkylator chemotherapy.[ 80 ][ 81 ][ 82 ] Stable asymptomatic patients with persistently positive biopsies have been successfully followed on a watchful waiting approach until disease progression.[ 78 ] Patients who progress are treated with radiation therapy,[ 83 ][ 84 ][ 85 ][ 86 ] rituximab,[ 87 ] surgery (total gastrectomy or partial gastrectomy plus radiation therapy),[ 88 ] chemotherapy,[ 89 ] or combined–modality therapy.[ 90 ] The use of endoscopic ultrasonography may help clinicians to follow responses in these patients.[ 91 ] Four case series encompassing more than 100 patients with stage IE or IIE diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) with or without associated MALT (but H. pylori-positive) reported durable complete remissions in more than 50% of the patients after treatment of H. pylori.[ 92 ][ 93 ][ 94 ][ 95 ]

Extragastric MALT

Localized involvement of other sites can be treated with radiation or surgery.[ 84 ][ 85 ][ 86 ][ 96 ][ 97 ][ 98 ][ 99 ] Patients with extragastric MALT lymphoma have a higher relapse rate than patients with gastric MALT lymphoma in some series, with relapses many years and even decades later.[ 100 ] Many of these recurrences involve different MALT sites than the original location.[ 101 ] When disseminated to lymph nodes, bone marrow, or blood, this entity behaves like other low-grade lymphomas.[ 102 ][ 103 ] A prospective, randomized trial of 401 patients with nongastric, extranodal MALT compared chlorambucil alone versus rituximab plus chlorambucil versus rituximab alone.[ 104 ] With a median follow-up of 7.4 years, the event-free survival was better for the rituximab-plus-chlorambucil arm (68%) than for the rituximab-alone arm (51%) and for the chlorambucil-alone arm (50%) (P = .0009); however, the 5-year OS was 90% in all arms.[ 104 ] For patients with ocular adnexal MALT, antibiotic therapy using doxycycline that targeted Chlamydia psittaci resulted in durable remissions for almost half of the patients in a review of the literature that included 131 patients.[ 105 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] These responses to doxycycline are mainly seen in Italian trials and less often in trials conducted in other geographic sites.[ 106 ] Large B-cell lymphomas of MALT sites are classified and treated as diffuse large cell lymphomas.[ 107 ] A large, retrospective review of primary ocular adnexal MALT found that after 10 years of follow-up, 4% of stage I patients treated with radiation therapy transformed to DLBCL, and 3% of them developed CNS involvement.[ 108 ]

Nodal marginal zone lymphoma

Patients with nodal marginal zone lymphoma (monocytoid B-cell lymphoma) are treated with the same paradigm of watchful waiting or therapies as described for follicular lymphoma.[ 109 ] Similar to follicular lymphoma, patients with POD24 who required initiation of therapy had a worse prognosis (53% 3-year OS rate) than did the patients without POD24 (95% 3-year OS rate).[ 110 ] Among patients with concomitant HCV infection, the majority attain a complete or partial remission after loss of detectable HCV RNA with treatment using interferon-alpha with or without ribavirin.[ 111 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Mediterranean abdominal lymphoma

The disease variously known as Mediterranean abdominal lymphoma, heavy–chain disease, or immunoproliferative small intestinal disease (IPSID), which occurs in young adults in eastern Mediterranean countries, is another version of MALT lymphoma, which responds to antibiotics in its early stages.[ 112 ] Campylobacter jejuni has been identified as one of the bacterial species associated with IPSID, and antibiotic therapy may result in remission of the disease.[ 113 ]

Splenic marginal zone lymphoma

Splenic marginal zone lymphoma is an indolent lymphoma that is marked by massive splenomegaly and peripheral blood and bone marrow involvement, usually without adenopathy.[ 114 ][ 115 ] This type of lymphoma is otherwise known as splenic lymphoma with villous lymphocytes. Splenectomy may result in prolonged remission.[ 73 ][ 116 ]

Management is similar to that of other low-grade lymphomas and usually involves rituximab alone or rituximab in combination with purine analogs or alkylating agent chemotherapy.[ 117 ] Splenic marginal zone lymphoma responds less well to chemotherapy, which would ordinarily be effective for chronic lymphocytic leukemia.[ 114 ][ 117 ][ 118 ] Among small numbers of patients with splenic marginal zone lymphoma (splenic lymphoma with villous lymphocytes) and infection with HCV, the majority attained a complete or partial remission after loss of detectable HCV RNA with treatment using interferon-alpha with or without ribavirin.[ 111 ][ 119 ]; [ 120 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] In contrast, no responses to interferon were seen in six HCV-negative patients.

Primary Cutaneous Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma

Primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma presents in the skin only with no pre-existing lymphoproliferative disease and no extracutaneous sites of involvement.[ 121 ][ 122 ][ 123 ] Patients with this type of lymphoma encompass a spectrum ranging from clinically benign lymphomatoid papulosis, marked by localized nodules that may regress spontaneously, to a progressive and systemic disease requiring aggressive doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy. This spectrum has been called the primary cutaneous CD30-positive T-cell lymphoproliferative disorder.

Patients with localized disease usually undergo radiation therapy. With more disseminated involvement, watchful waiting or doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy is applied.[ 121 ][ 122 ][ 123 ]

(Refer to the PDQ summaries on Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Treatment; Mycosis Fungoides (Including Sézary Syndrome) Treatment; Hairy Cell Leukemia Treatment; and Adult Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)

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  88. Cogliatti SB, Schmid U, Schumacher U, et al.: Primary B-cell gastric lymphoma: a clinicopathological study of 145 patients. Gastroenterology 101 (5): 1159-70, 1991.[PUBMED Abstract]
  89. Zinzani PL, Magagnoli M, Galieni P, et al.: Nongastrointestinal low-grade mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma: analysis of 75 patients. J Clin Oncol 17 (4): 1254, 1999.[PUBMED Abstract]
  90. Thieblemont C, Bastion Y, Berger F, et al.: Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue gastrointestinal and nongastrointestinal lymphoma behavior: analysis of 108 patients. J Clin Oncol 15 (4): 1624-30, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  92. Morgner A, Miehlke S, Fischbach W, et al.: Complete remission of primary high-grade B-cell gastric lymphoma after cure of Helicobacter pylori infection. J Clin Oncol 19 (7): 2041-8, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  94. Chen LT, Lin JT, Tai JJ, et al.: Long-term results of anti-Helicobacter pylori therapy in early-stage gastric high-grade transformed MALT lymphoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 97 (18): 1345-53, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  96. Uno T, Isobe K, Shikama N, et al.: Radiotherapy for extranodal, marginal zone, B-cell lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue originating in the ocular adnexa: a multiinstitutional, retrospective review of 50 patients. Cancer 98 (4): 865-71, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  98. Stefanovic A, Lossos IS: Extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of the ocular adnexa. Blood 114 (3): 501-10, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
  99. Vazquez A, Khan MN, Sanghvi S, et al.: Extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue of the salivary glands: a population-based study from 1994 to 2009. Head Neck 37 (1): 18-22, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  100. Raderer M, Streubel B, Woehrer S, et al.: High relapse rate in patients with MALT lymphoma warrants lifelong follow-up. Clin Cancer Res 11 (9): 3349-52, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  101. Sretenovic M, Colovic M, Jankovic G, et al.: More than a third of non-gastric malt lymphomas are disseminated at diagnosis: a single center survey. Eur J Haematol 82 (5): 373-80, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
  102. Nathwani BN, Drachenberg MR, Hernandez AM, et al.: Nodal monocytoid B-cell lymphoma (nodal marginal-zone B-cell lymphoma). Semin Hematol 36 (2): 128-38, 1999.[PUBMED Abstract]
  103. Raderer M, Wöhrer S, Streubel B, et al.: Assessment of disease dissemination in gastric compared with extragastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma using extensive staging: a single-center experience. J Clin Oncol 24 (19): 3136-41, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  104. Zucca E, Conconi A, Martinelli G, et al.: Final Results of the IELSG-19 Randomized Trial of Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue Lymphoma: Improved Event-Free and Progression-Free Survival With Rituximab Plus Chlorambucil Versus Either Chlorambucil or Rituximab Monotherapy. J Clin Oncol 35 (17): 1905-1912, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  105. Kiesewetter B, Raderer M: Antibiotic therapy in nongastrointestinal MALT lymphoma: a review of the literature. Blood 122 (8): 1350-7, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  108. Desai A, Joag MG, Lekakis L, et al.: Long-term course of patients with primary ocular adnexal MALT lymphoma: a large single-institution cohort study. Blood 129 (3): 324-332, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  109. Thieblemont C, Molina T, Davi F: Optimizing therapy for nodal marginal zone lymphoma. Blood 127 (17): 2064-71, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
  110. Luminari S, Merli M, Rattotti S, et al.: Early progression as a predictor of survival in marginal zone lymphomas: an analysis from the FIL-NF10 study. Blood 134 (10): 798-801, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  111. Vallisa D, Bernuzzi P, Arcaini L, et al.: Role of anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment in HCV-related, low-grade, B-cell, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a multicenter Italian experience. J Clin Oncol 23 (3): 468-73, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  112. Isaacson PG: Gastrointestinal lymphoma. Hum Pathol 25 (10): 1020-9, 1994.[PUBMED Abstract]
  113. Lecuit M, Abachin E, Martin A, et al.: Immunoproliferative small intestinal disease associated with Campylobacter jejuni. N Engl J Med 350 (3): 239-48, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  114. Arcaini L, Paulli M, Boveri E, et al.: Splenic and nodal marginal zone lymphomas are indolent disorders at high hepatitis C virus seroprevalence with distinct presenting features but similar morphologic and phenotypic profiles. Cancer 100 (1): 107-15, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  117. Arcaini L, Lazzarino M, Colombo N, et al.: Splenic marginal zone lymphoma: a prognostic model for clinical use. Blood 107 (12): 4643-9, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  120. Kelaidi C, Rollot F, Park S, et al.: Response to antiviral treatment in hepatitis C virus-associated marginal zone lymphomas. Leukemia 18 (10): 1711-6, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  123. Kempf W, Pfaltz K, Vermeer MH, et al.: EORTC, ISCL, and USCLC consensus recommendations for the treatment of primary cutaneous CD30-positive lymphoproliferative disorders: lymphomatoid papulosis and primary cutaneous anaplastic large-cell lymphoma. Blood 118 (15): 4024-35, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
Aggressive NHL

Aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) includes the following subtypes:

Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common NHL and comprises 30% of newly diagnosed cases.[ 1 ] Most patients present with rapidly enlarging masses, often with both local and systemic symptoms (designated B symptoms with fever, recurrent night sweats, or weight loss). (Refer to the PDQ summary on Hot Flashes and Night Sweats and the PDQ summary on Nutrition in Cancer Care for more information on weight loss.)

Some cases of large B-cell lymphoma have a prominent background of reactive T cells and often of histiocytes, so-called T-cell/histiocyte-rich large B-cell lymphoma. This subtype of large cell lymphoma has frequent liver, spleen, and bone marrow involvement; however, the outcome is equivalent to that of similarly staged patients with DLBCL.[ 2 ][ 3 ][ 4 ] Some patients with DLBCL at diagnosis have a concomitant indolent small B-cell component; while overall survival (OS) appears similar after multidrug chemotherapy, there is a higher risk of indolent relapse.[ 5 ]

Prognosis

The vast majority of patients with localized disease are curable with combined–modality therapy or combination chemotherapy alone.[ 6 ] For patients with advanced-stage disease, 50% of presenting patients are cured with doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy and rituximab.[ 7 ][ 8 ][ 9 ]

The National Comprehensive Cancer Network International Prognostic Index (IPI) for aggressive NHL (diffuse large cell lymphoma) identifies five significant risk factors prognostic of OS:[ 10 ]

Risk scores:

Age-adjusted and stage-adjusted modifications of this IPI are used for younger patients with localized disease.[ 11 ] Shorter intervals of time between diagnosis and treatment appear to be a surrogate for poor prognostic biologic factors.[ 12 ]

The BCL2 gene and rearrangement of the MYC gene or dual overexpression of the MYC gene, or both, confer a particularly poor prognosis.[ 13 ][ 14 ][ 15 ] Dose-intensive therapies, infusional therapies, and stem cell transplantation consolidation are being explored in this high-risk group.[ 16 ][ 17 ] A retrospective review evaluated 159 patients with previously untreated DLBCL who underwent double-hit genetic testing by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and achieved complete response (CR).[ 18 ] The induction therapy did not alter 3-year relapse-free survival or OS when autologous stem cell transplantation (SCT) was employed.

In a retrospective review of 117 patients with relapsed or refractory DLBCL who underwent autologous SCT, the 4-year OS was 25% for double-hit lymphomas (rearrangement of BCL2 and MYC), 61% for double-expressor lymphomas (no rearrangement, but increased expression of BCL2 and MYC), and 70% for patients without these features.[ 19 ] Patients at high risk of relapse may be considered for clinical trials.[ 20 ]

Molecular profiles of gene expression using DNA microarrays may help to stratify patients in the future for therapies directed at specific targets and to better predict survival after standard chemotherapy.[ 21 ] Patients who have DLBCL with coexpression of CD20 and CD30 may define a subgroup with a unique molecular signature, a more favorable prognosis, and possible therapeutic implication for the use of anti-CD30–specific therapy, such as brentuximab vedotin.[ 22 ] Patients with DLBCL who are event-free after 2 years have a subsequent OS equivalent to that of the age- and sex-matched general population.[ 23 ]

Central nervous system (CNS) prophylaxis

CNS prophylaxis (usually with four to six injections of methotrexate intrathecally) is recommended for patients with testicular involvement. Some clinicians are employing high-dose intravenous methotrexate (usually four doses) as an alternative to intrathecal therapy because drug delivery is improved and patient morbidity is decreased.[ 24 ] CNS prophylaxis for bone marrow involvement is controversial; some investigators recommend it, others do not.[ 25 ][ 26 ]

A retrospective analysis of 605 patients with diffuse large cell lymphoma who did not receive prophylactic intrathecal therapy identified an elevated serum LDH and more than one extranodal site as independent risk factors for CNS recurrence. Patients with both risk factors have a 17% probability of CNS recurrence at 1 year after diagnosis (95% confidence interval [CI], 7%–28%) versus 2.8% (95% CI, 2.7%–2.9%) for the remaining patients.[ 27 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiii]

The CNS-IPI is a tool used to predict which patients have a risk of CNS relapse above 10%. It was developed by the German Lymphoma Study Group and validated by the British Columbia Cancer Agency database. Four to six of the IPI risk factors (refer to the Prognosis section of this summary for more information) and involvement of the kidneys or adrenal glands were used to define the high-risk group that might benefit from CNS prophylaxis.[ 28 ]

The addition of rituximab to cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone (CHOP)-based regimens has significantly reduced the risk of CNS relapse in retrospective analyses.[ 29 ][ 30 ] Patients with CNS dissemination at diagnosis or at relapse usually receive rituximab and high doses of methotrexate and/or cytarabine followed by autologous SCT, but this approach has not been assessed in randomized trials.[ 31 ][ 32 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Primary Mediastinal Large B-cell Lymphoma

Primary mediastinal (thymic) large B-cell lymphoma is a subset of DLBCL with molecular characteristics that are most similar to nodular-sclerosing Hodgkin lymphoma (HL). Mediastinal lymphomas with features intermediate between primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma and nodular-sclerosing HL are called mediastinal gray-zone lymphomas.[ 33 ][ 34 ] Patients are usually female and young (median age, 30–40 years). Patients present with a locally invasive anterior mediastinal mass that may cause respiratory symptoms or superior vena cava syndrome.

Prognosis and therapy is the same as for other comparably staged patients with DLBCL. Uncontrolled, phase II studies employing dose-adjusted EPOCH (etoposide, prednisone, vincristine, cyclophosphamide, and doxorubicin) plus rituximab or R-CHOP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone) show high cure rates while avoiding any mediastinal radiation.[ 34 ][ 35 ][ 36 ][ 37 ][ 38 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiA] These results suggest that patients who receive R-CHOP–based regimens may avoid the serious long-term complications of radiation therapy when given with chemotherapy. Posttreatment fluorine F 18-fludeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) positron emission tomography–computed tomography (PET-CT) scans are controversial; it remains unclear if PET scans can reliably identify patients who can take or omit radiation therapy consolidation.[ 35 ][ 39 ][ 40 ][ 41 ] The only randomized trial showing an OS advantage for combined modality therapy was retracted. In situations where mediastinal radiation would encompass the left side of the heart or would increase breast cancer risk in young female patients, proton therapy may be considered to reduce radiation dose to organs at risk.[ 42 ] (Refer to the Superior Vena Cava Syndrome section in the PDQ summary on Cardiopulmonary Syndromes for more information.)

Because primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma is characterized by high expression of programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) and variable expression of CD30, a phase II study evaluated nivolumab plus brentuximab vedotin in 30 patients with relapsed disease. With a median follow-up of 11.1 months, the objective response rate (ORR) was 73% (95% CI, 54%−88%).[ 43 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Follicular Large Cell Lymphoma

Prognosis

The natural history of follicular large cell lymphoma remains controversial.[ 44 ] While there is agreement about the significant number of long-term disease-free survivors with early-stage disease, the curability of patients with advanced disease (stage III or stage IV) remains uncertain. Some groups report a continuous relapse rate similar to the other follicular lymphomas (a pattern of indolent lymphoma).[ 45 ] Other investigators report a plateau in freedom from progression at levels expected for an aggressive lymphoma (40% at 10 years).[ 46 ][ 47 ] This discrepancy may be caused by variations in histologic classification between institutions and the rarity of patients with follicular large cell lymphoma. A retrospective review of 252 patients, all treated with anthracycline-containing combination chemotherapy, showed that patients with more than 50% diffuse components on biopsy had a worse OS than other patients with follicular large cell lymphoma.[ 48 ]

Therapeutic approaches

Treatment of follicular large cell lymphoma is more similar to treatment of aggressive NHL than it is to the treatment of indolent NHL. In support of this approach, treatment with high-dose chemotherapy and autologous hematopoietic peripheral SCT shows the same curative potential in patients with follicular large cell lymphoma who relapse as it does in patients with diffuse large cell lymphoma who relapse.[ 49 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]

Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma

Anaplastic large cell lymphomas (ALCL) may be confused with carcinomas and are associated with the Ki-1 (CD30) antigen. These lymphomas are usually of T-cell origin, often present with extranodal disease, and are found especially in the skin.[ 50 ]

The translocation of chromosomes 2 and 5 creates a unique fusion protein with a nucleophosmin-anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK).[ 50 ][ 51 ]

Patients whose lymphomas express ALK (immunohistochemistry) are usually younger and may have systemic symptoms, extranodal disease, and advanced-stage disease; however, they have a more favorable survival rate than that of ALK-negative patients.[ 52 ][ 53 ]

In a prospective randomized trial of 452 patients with CD30-positive T-cell lymphoma, 70% of whom had ALCL (22% ALK-positive and 48% ALK-negative patients), the previously used standard regimen, CHOP, was compared with brentuximab vedotin (an anti-CD30 monoclonal antibody conjugated to a cytotoxic agent) combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone.[ 54 ] With a median follow-up of 35 months, the brentuximab combination (3-year OS, 77%) showed an OS advantage over CHOP (3-year OS, 68%); (hazard ratio [HR], 0.66; 95% CI, 0.46–0.95; P = .02).[ 54 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA] This established brentuximab plus cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone as a new option for patients with anaplastic large cell lymphoma and other CD30-positive T-cell lymphomas, such as angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma and peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified. For patients with relapsed disease, anecdotal responses have been reported for brentuximab vedotin (anti-tubulin agent attached to a CD30-specific monoclonal antibody),[ 55 ][ 56 ][ 57 ][ 58 ] romidepsin,[ 59 ] and pralatrexate.[ 60 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] In a phase II study (NCT00866047), 66% of 58 patients attained a CR with brentuximab vedotin. At a median follow-up of 58 months, the 5-year PFS was 57% (95% CI, 41%–74%), and the 5-year OS was 79% (95% CI, 65%–92%) with 42% of these patients undergoing hematopoietic SCT.[ 58 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] For patients with relapsed disease, autologous or allogeneic SCT showed a 50% 3-year PFS for 39 patients in a retrospective review.[ 61 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiii]

ALCL in children is usually characterized by systemic and cutaneous disease and has high response rates and good OS with doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy.[ 62 ] Patients with breast implant–associated ALCL may do well without chemotherapy after capsulectomy and implant removal if the disease is confined to the fibrous capsule, and no associated mass or lymphadenopathy is present.[ 63 ][ 64 ][ 65 ][ 66 ]

Extranodal Natural Killer (NK)-/T-cell Lymphoma

Extranodal natural killer (NK)-/T-cell lymphoma (nasal type) is an aggressive lymphoma marked by extensive necrosis and angioinvasion, most often presenting in extranodal sites, in particular the nasal or paranasal sinus region.[ 67 ] Other extranodal sites include the palate, trachea, skin, and gastrointestinal tract. Hemophagocytic syndrome may occur; historically, these tumors were considered part of lethal midline granuloma.[ 68 ] In most cases, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genomes are detectable in the tumor cells and immunophenotyping shows CD56 positivity. Cases with blood and marrow involvement are considered NK-cell leukemia.

The increased risk of CNS involvement and of local recurrence has led to recommendations for radiation therapy locally, concurrently, before the start of chemotherapy or between cycle two and three of chemotherapy, and for intrathecal prophylaxis and/or prophylactic cranial radiation therapy.[ 69 ][ 70 ][ 71 ][ 72 ][ 73 ][ 74 ][ 75 ][ 76 ] A retrospective review of 1,273 early-stage patients stratified them into a low-risk group and high-risk group using stage, age, LDH, performance status, and primary tumor invasion. Low-risk patients fared best with radiation therapy alone,[ 77 ] while high-risk patients fared best with a strategy of radiation therapy concurrent with chemotherapy, following cycle two of chemotherapy, or followed by chemotherapy.[ 75 ][ 78 ][ 79 ] Higher doses of radiation therapy administered at more than 50 Gy are associated with improved outcomes according to anecdotal reports.[ 75 ] The highly aggressive course, with poor response and short survival with standard therapies, especially for patients with advanced-stage disease or extranasal presentation, has led some investigators to recommend autologous or allogeneic peripheral SCT consolidation.[ 76 ][ 80 ][ 81 ][ 82 ][ 83 ][ 84 ] L-asparaginase-containing regimens have shown anecdotal response rates greater than 50% for relapsing, refractory, or newly diagnosed patients.[ 76 ][ 85 ][ 86 ][ 87 ] NK-/T-cell lymphoma that presents only in the skin has a more favorable prognosis, especially in patients with coexpression of CD30 with CD56.[ 88 ] A benign NK-cell enteropathy (EBV negative) on endoscopic biopsy can be distinguished from NK-/T-cell lymphoma.[ 89 ]

Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis

Lymphomatoid granulomatosis is an EBV-positive large B-cell lymphoma with a predominant T-cell background.[ 90 ][ 91 ] The histology shows association with angioinvasion and vasculitis, usually manifesting as pulmonary lesions or paranasal sinus involvement.

Patients are managed like others with diffuse large cell lymphoma and require doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy.

Angioimmunoblastic T-cell Lymphoma

Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL or ATCL) was formerly called angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy with dysproteinemia. Characterized by clonal T-cell receptor gene rearrangement, this entity is managed like diffuse large cell lymphoma.[ 92 ][ 93 ][ 94 ][ 95 ] Patients present with profound lymphadenopathy, fever, night sweats, weight loss, skin rash, a positive Coombs test, and polyclonal hypergammaglobulinemia.[ 68 ] (Refer to the information on night sweats in the PDQ summary on Hot Flashes and Night Sweats, information on weight loss in the in the PDQ summary on Nutrition in Cancer Care, and information on skin rash in the PDQ summary on Pruritus.) Opportunistic infections are frequent because of an underlying immune deficiency. B-cell EBV genomes are detected in most affected patients.[ 96 ]

Doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy, such as the CHOP regimen, is recommended as it is for other aggressive lymphomas.[ 92 ][ 95 ] For CD30-positive cases, brentuximab combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone is the standard of care.[ 54 ][Level of evidence: 1iiD] (Refer to the Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma section of this summary for more information.) The International Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma Project involving 22 international centers identified 243 patients with AITL or ATCL; the 5-year OS and failure-free survival rates were 33% and 18%, respectively.[ 97 ] Myeloablative chemotherapy and radiation therapy with autologous or allogeneic peripheral stem cell support has been described in anecdotal reports.[ 83 ][ 98 ][ 99 ] Anecdotal responses have been reported for cyclosporine,[ 100 ] pralatrexate,[ 101 ] bendamustine,[ 102 ] the histone deacetylase inhibitor romidepsin, and brentuximab vedotin (even if there is little or no CD30 expression on the lymphoma).[ 59 ][ 103 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Occasional spontaneous remissions and protracted responses to steroids only have been reported.

Peripheral T-cell Lymphoma

Patients with peripheral T-cell lymphoma have diffuse large cell or diffuse mixed lymphoma that expresses a cell surface phenotype of a postthymic (or peripheral) T-cell expressing CD4 or CD8 but not both together.[ 104 ] Peripheral T-cell lymphoma encompasses a group of heterogeneous nodal T-cell lymphomas that will require future delineation.[ 68 ][ 105 ] This includes the so-called Lennert lymphoma, a T-cell lymphoma admixed with a preponderance of lymphoepithelioid cells.

Prognosis

Most investigators report worse response and survival rates for patients with peripheral T-cell lymphomas than for patients with comparably staged B-cell aggressive lymphomas.[ 105 ][ 106 ] Most patients present with multiple adverse prognostic factors (i.e., older age, stage IV, multiple extranodal sites, and elevated LDH), and these patients have a low (<20%) failure-free survival and OS at 5 years.[ 105 ][ 106 ] As with other lymphomas (e.g., diffuse large B-cell lymphoma or follicular lymphoma), event-free survival at 24 months predicts a 5-year OS of 78%.[ 107 ]

Therapeutic approaches

Therapy involves doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy (such as CHOP or CHOPE [CHOP plus etoposide]), which is also used for DLBCL.[ 108 ] For CD30-positive cases, brentuximab combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone is the standard of care.[ 54 ][Level of evidence: 1iiD] (Refer to the Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma section of this summary for more information.) For patients with early-stage disease, anecdotal retrospective series disagree on the value of consolidative radiation therapy after combination chemotherapy.[ 109 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Consolidation using high-dose chemotherapy with autologous or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell support has been applied to patients with advanced-stage peripheral T-cell lymphoma after induction therapy with CHOP-based regimens and after response to reinduction therapy at first relapse. Evidence for this approach is anecdotal.[ 83 ][ 98 ][ 110 ][ 111 ][ 112 ] For relapsing patients, pralatrexate has shown a 30% response rate and a median 10-month duration of response for 109 evaluable patients in a prospective trial.[ 59 ][ 113 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Also for relapsing patients, similar response rates were seen for romidepsin for 130 evaluable patients in a prospective trial.[ 59 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Anecdotal responses have been seen with a combination of pralatrexate and romidepsin,[ 101 ] single-agent bendamustine,[ 102 ] belinostat,[ 114 ] and brentuximab vedotin (even if there is little or no CD30 expression on the lymphoma).[ 103 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Incorporation of these new agents with CHOP chemotherapy is under clinical evaluation.[ 54 ][ 105 ] Anecdotal responses have also been seen with alemtuzumab, an anti-CD52 monoclonal antibody, after relapse from previous chemotherapy.[ 115 ] The median PFS after first relapse was less than 6 months in one series of 163 patients with peripheral T-cell lymphoma.[ 116 ]

An unusual type of peripheral T-cell lymphoma occurring mostly in young men, hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma, appears to be localized to the hepatic and splenic sinusoids, with cell surface expression of the T-cell receptor gamma/delta.[ 117 ][ 118 ][ 119 ][ 120 ][ 121 ] Another variant, subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma, is localized to subcutaneous tissue associated with hemophagocytic syndrome.[ 122 ][ 123 ][ 124 ][ 125 ] These patients have cells that express alpha-beta phenotype. Those with gamma-delta phenotype have a more aggressive clinical course and are classified as cutaneous gamma-delta T-cell lymphoma.[ 126 ][ 127 ][ 128 ] These patients may manifest involvement of the epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous region, or mucosa. These entities have extremely poor prognoses with an extremely aggressive clinical course and are treated within the same paradigm as the highest-risk groups with DLBCL.[ 83 ] An indolent T-cell lymphoproliferative disease of the gastrointestinal tract must be distinguished from peripheral T-cell lymphoma because no therapy may be indicated.[ 129 ]

Enteropathy-type Intestinal T-cell Lymphoma

Enteropathy-type intestinal T-cell lymphoma involves the small bowel of patients with gluten-sensitive enteropathy (celiac sprue).[ 68 ][ 130 ][ 131 ][ 132 ] Because a gluten-free diet prevents the development of lymphoma, patients diagnosed with celiac sprue in childhood rarely develop lymphoma. The diagnosis of celiac disease is usually made by finding villous atrophy in the resected intestine. Surgery is often required for diagnosis and to avoid perforation during therapy.

Therapy is with doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy, but relapse rates appear higher than for comparably staged diffuse large cell lymphoma.[ 131 ][ 132 ][ 133 ] Complications of treatment include gastrointestinal bleeding, small bowel perforation, and enterocolic fistulae; patients often require parenteral nutrition. (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Gastrointestinal Complications and Nutrition in Cancer Care for more information on parenteral nutrition.) Multifocal intestinal perforations and visceral abdominal involvement are seen at the time of relapse. High-dose therapy with hematopoietic stem cell rescue has been applied in first remission or at relapse.[ 83 ][ 131 ][ 134 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiii] Evidence for this approach is anecdotal.

Intravascular Large B-cell Lymphoma (Intravascular Lymphomatosis)

Intravascular lymphomatosis is characterized by large cell lymphoma confined to the intravascular lumen. The brain, kidneys, lungs, and skin are the organs most likely affected by intravascular lymphomatosis.

With the use of aggressive combination chemotherapy, the prognosis is similar to more conventional presentations.[ 135 ][ 136 ]

Burkitt Lymphoma/Diffuse Small Noncleaved-cell Lymphoma

Burkitt lymphoma/diffuse small noncleaved-cell lymphoma typically involves younger patients and represents the most common type of pediatric NHL.[ 137 ] These types of aggressive extranodal B-cell lymphomas are characterized by translocation and deregulation of the C-Myc gene on chromosome 8.[ 138 ] A subgroup of patients with dual translocation of C-Myc and BCL2 appear to have an extremely poor outcome despite aggressive therapy (5-month OS).[ 139 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]

In some patients with larger B cells, there is morphologic overlap with DLBCL. These Burkitt-like large cell lymphomas show C-Myc deregulation, extremely high proliferation rates, and a gene-expression profile as expected for classic Burkitt lymphoma.[ 140 ][ 141 ][ 142 ] Endemic cases, usually from Africa, involve the facial bones or jaws of children, mostly containing EBV genomes. Sporadic cases usually involve the gastrointestinal system, ovaries, or kidneys. Patients present with rapidly growing masses and a very high LDH but are potentially curable with intensive doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy.

Therapeutic approaches

Treatment of Burkitt lymphoma/diffuse small noncleaved-cell lymphoma involves aggressive multidrug regimens in combination with rituximab, similar to those used for the advanced-stage aggressive lymphomas (diffuse large cell).[ 143 ][ 144 ][ 145 ][ 146 ] Aggressive combination chemotherapy, which is patterned after that used in childhood Burkitt lymphoma, has been very successful for adult patients with more than 60% of advanced-stage patients free of disease at 5 years.[ 147 ][ 148 ][ 149 ][ 150 ] Adverse prognostic factors include bulky abdominal disease and high serum LDH. Patients with Burkitt lymphoma have a 20% to 30% lifetime risk of CNS involvement. Prophylaxis with intrathecal chemotherapy is required as part of induction therapy.[ 151 ] Patients with HIV-associated Burkitt lymphoma also benefit from less-toxic modification of the aggressive multidrug regimens in combination with rituximab.[ 152 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] (Refer to the PDQ summaries on Primary CNS Lymphoma Treatment and AIDS-Related Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)

Lymphoblastic Lymphoma

Lymphoblastic lymphoma (precursor T-cell) is a very aggressive form of NHL. It often, but not exclusively, occurs in young patients.[ 153 ] It is commonly associated with large mediastinal masses and has a high predilection for disseminating to bone marrow and the CNS.

Treatment is usually patterned after that for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Intensive combination chemotherapy with or without bone marrow transplantation is the standard treatment for this aggressive histologic type of NHL.[ 154 ][ 155 ][ 156 ] Radiation therapy is sometimes given to areas of bulky tumor masses. Because these forms of NHL tend to progress quickly, combination chemotherapy is instituted rapidly once the diagnosis has been confirmed. Careful review of the pathologic specimens, bone marrow aspirate, biopsy specimen, cerebrospinal fluid cytology, and lymphocyte marker constitute the most important aspects of the pretreatment staging workup. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment for more information.)

Adult T-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma

Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL) is caused by infection with the retrovirus human T-lymphotrophic virus 1 and is frequently associated with lymphadenopathy, hypercalcemia, circulating leukemic cells, bone and skin involvement, hepatosplenomegaly, a rapidly progressive course, and poor response to combination chemotherapy.[ 157 ][ 158 ] ATL has been divided into four clinical subtypes:[ 159 ][ 160 ]

The acute and lymphoma types of ATL have done poorly with strategies of combination chemotherapy and allogeneic SCT with a median OS under 1 year.[ 161 ][ 162 ][ 163 ] Using combination chemotherapy, less than 10% of 807 patients were alive after 4 years.[ 163 ] Anecdotal durable remissions have been reported after allogeneic SCT and even after subsequent donor lymphocyte infusion for relapses after transplant.[ 164 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Among 815 patients who underwent allogeneic SCT in two retrospective reviews, the 3-year OS rates were 36% and 26%.[ 165 ][ 166 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]

The combination of zidovudine and interferon-alpha has activity against ATL, even for patients who failed previous cytotoxic therapy. Durable remissions are seen in the majority of presenting patients with this combination but are not seen in patients with the lymphoma subtype of ATL.[ 167 ][ 168 ][ 169 ][ 170 ][ 171 ] In a multicenter phase II study of 26 relapsed patients, 42% responded to lenalidomide (including four CR).[ 172 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Symptomatic local progression of all subtypes responds well to palliative radiation therapy.[ 173 ] In the relapsed setting, an ORR above 50% is seen using mogamulizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody against the C-C chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4).[ 174 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] For CD30-positive cases, brentuximab combined with cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone is the standard of care.[ 54 ][Level of evidence: 1iiD] (Refer to the Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma section of this summary for more information.)

Mantle Cell Lymphoma

Mantle cell lymphoma is found in lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow, blood, and sometimes the gastrointestinal system (lymphomatous polyposis).[ 175 ] Mantle cell lymphoma is characterized by CD5-positive follicular mantle B cells, a translocation of chromosomes 11 and 14, and an overexpression of the cyclin D1 protein.[ 175 ] Mantle cell lymphoma may be divided into two clinical subtypes: a classical version with lymphadenopathy with high SOX-11 expression that manifests with an aggressive clinical course and a worse prognosis versus a leukemic, non-nodal version with low SOX-11 expression and a more indolent course and a better prognosis.[ 176 ] A complex karyotype predicts poor response to induction therapy and inferior survival.[ 177 ] There is frequent overlap on presentation with these subtypes, and the therapeutic implication remains unclear. However, both of these versions can converge later in their course into a blastoid phenotype or treatment-resistant phenotype due to genomic instability and selection.[ 178 ]

Like the low-grade lymphomas, mantle cell lymphoma appears incurable with anthracycline-based chemotherapy and occurs in older patients with generally asymptomatic advanced-stage disease. The median survival, however, is significantly shorter (5–7 years) than that of other lymphomas, and this histology is now considered to be an aggressive lymphoma.[ 179 ] A diffuse pattern and the blastoid variant have an aggressive course with shorter survival, while the mantle zone type may have a more indolent course.[ 180 ] A high cell-proliferation rate (increased Ki-67, mitotic index, beta-2-microglobulin) may be associated with a poorer prognosis.[ 181 ][ 182 ]

Therapeutic approaches

Asymptomatic patients with low-risk scores on the IPI may do well when initial therapy is deferred.[ 183 ][ 184 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] There is no standard approach to mantle cell lymphoma. Several induction chemotherapy regimens may be employed for symptomatic progressing disease. These regimens range in intensity from rituximab alone to rituximab plus bendamustine, to R-CHOP, to high-dose intensive regimens such as R-hyper C-VAD (hyperfractionated cyclophosphamide, vincristine, doxorubicin, and dexamethasone alternating with methotrexate and cytarabine). Some physicians use autologous SCT or allogeneic SCT consolidation next, while others prefer rituximab maintenance, reserving high-dose consolidation for a later time.[ 185 ] Ibrutinib, lenalidomide, and bortezomib have shown activity in relapsing patients, and these drugs are being incorporated upfront.[ 186 ][ 187 ][ 188 ][ 189 ][ 190 ]

It is unclear which therapeutic approach offers the best long-term survival in this clinicopathologic entity. In a prospective randomized trial, 560 patients older than 60 years and not eligible for SCT were given either R-CHOP or R-FC (rituximab, fludarabine, cyclophosphamide) for six to eight cycles, followed by maintenance therapy in responders randomly assigned to rituximab or interferon-alpha maintenance therapy.[ 191 ] With a median follow-up of 7.6 years, the median OS was significantly shorter after R-FC than after R-CHOP (3.9 years versus 6.4 years; P = .0054).[ 191 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA] In the same trial, with a median follow-up of 8 years for the 316 responding patients, rituximab maintenance resulted in improved OS over interferon maintenance (median OS, 9.8 years vs. 7.1 years; P = .009).[ 191 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA] Patients responsive to R-CHOP benefitted most from rituximab in OS (median 9.8 years vs. 6.4 years; P = .0026).[ 191 ][Level of evidence: 3iiA] A randomized trial compared bendamustine plus rituximab (BR) with R-CHOP and showed improved PFS (35 vs. 22 months; HR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.28–0.79; P = .004) but no difference in OS.[ 192 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii] However, this trial failed to show any benefit for rituximab maintenance after BR. A prospective, randomized trial of 487 patients compared VR-CAP (bortezomib, rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, prednisone) with R-CHOP.[ 193 ] With a median follow-up of 82 months, the median OS was longer for VR-CAP (90.7 months) compared with R-CHOP (55.7 months) (HR, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.51−0.85; P = .001).[ 193 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

A prospective randomized trial of 497 patients younger than 65 years compared six cycles of R-CHOP to six cycles of alternating R-CHOP and R-DHAP (rituximab, dexamethasone, cytarabine, and cisplatin), with both groups then receiving autologous SCT.[ 194 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii] With a median follow-up of 6.1 years, the time to treatment failure (TTF) was longer in the cytarabine group, with a median TTF follow-up of 9.1 years (95% CI, 6.3 years to not reached) compared with 3.9 years (95% CI, 3.2‒4.4 years) (HR, 0.56; corrected P = .038) for the control group. Despite this surprising difference in TTF, the OS was not different.

Many investigators are exploring high-dose chemoradiation immunotherapy with stem cell/bone marrow support or nonmyeloablative allogeneic SCT.[ 195 ][ 196 ][ 197 ][ 198 ][ 199 ][ 200 ] Thus far, randomized trials have not confirmed OS benefits from these newer approaches.[ 196 ]

In a prospective trial (NCT00921414) of 299 patients who were previously untreated for mantle cell lymphoma, 257 responders received four courses of R-DHAP and autologous SCT. The patients were randomly assigned to receive rituximab maintenance therapy for 3 years versus no maintenance therapy. After randomization, a median follow-up at 50.2 months showed the rate of PFS at 4-years favored the rituximab-maintenance arm at 83% (95% CI, 73%–88%) versus the no-maintenance arm at 64% (95% CI, 55%–73%; P < .001). The 4-year OS rate also favored the rituximab-maintenance arm at 89% (95% CI, 81%–94%) versus the no-maintenance arm at 80% (95% CI, 72%–88%; P = .04).[ 201 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Lenalidomide with or without rituximab also shows response rates of around 50% in relapsed patients, with even higher response rates for previously untreated patients.[ 187 ][ 190 ][ 202 ][ 203 ][Level of evidence: 3iiDiv]

The B-cell receptor-inhibitor, ibrutinib, showed a response rate of 86% (21% CR rate) in previously treated patients with a median PFS time of 14 months.[ 188 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] In a prospective randomized trial of 280 patients with relapsed/refractory mantle cell lymphoma, patients received either ibrutinib or temsirolimus.[ 204 ] With a median follow-up of 15 months, the median PFS favored ibrutinib (14.6 months vs. 6.2 months; HR, 0.43; 95% CI, 0.32–0.58, P < .0001).[ 204 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii] Ibrutinib has been combined with another active agent, venetoclax, in a phase II study of 23 patients with relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma.[ 205 ] An unprecedented 71% of patients had CR and 78% of responding patients maintained response at 15 months.[ 205 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Acalabrutinib (another B-cell receptor inhibitor via the Bruton tyrosine kinase pathway) was studied in 124 patients with relapsed/refractory mantle cell lymphoma.[ 206 ] In a phase II study, there was an 81% objective response rate, 40% CR rate, and the 1-year PFS rate was 67%.[ 206 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Rituximab, lenalidomide, ibrutinib, acalabrutinib, and venetoclax represent directed biologic agents that may lead the way to chemotherapy-free strategies for patients with mantle cell lymphoma.[ 207 ]

Patients with relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma whose disease did not respond to ibrutinib or acalabrutinib were enrolled in a phase II trial using KTE-X19, an anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy.[ 208 ] With a median follow-up of 12 months, 60 patients had an overall response rate of 93% (95% CI, 84−98) and a 67% CR (95% CI, 53−78).[ 208 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] Grade 3 or higher cytokine release syndrome occurred in 15% of patients, and neurologic events occurred in 31% of patients.

Posttransplantation Lymphoproliferative Disorder

Patients who undergo transplantation of the heart, lung, liver, kidney, or pancreas usually require lifelong immunosuppression. This may result in posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD) in 1% to 3% of recipients, which appears as an aggressive lymphoma.[ 209 ] Pathologists can distinguish a polyclonal B-cell hyperplasia from a monoclonal B-cell lymphoma; both are almost always associated with EBV.[ 210 ]

Prognosis

Poor performance status, grafted organ involvement, high IPI, elevated LDH, and multiple sites of disease are poor prognostic factors for PTLD.[ 211 ][ 212 ]

Therapeutic options

In some cases, withdrawal of immunosuppression results in eradication of the lymphoma.[ 213 ][ 214 ] When this is unsuccessful or not feasible, a course of rituximab may be considered, because it has shown durable remissions in approximately 60% of patients and a favorable toxicity profile.[ 213 ][ 215 ][ 216 ] If these measures fail, doxorubicin-based combination chemotherapy (R-CHOP) is recommended, although some patients can avoid cytotoxic therapy.[ 216 ][ 217 ] Localized presentations can be controlled with surgery or radiation therapy alone. These localized mass lesions, which may grow over a period of months, are often phenotypically polyclonal and tend to occur within weeks or a few months after transplantation.[ 210 ] Multifocal, rapidly progressive disease occurs late after transplantation (>1 year) and is usually phenotypically monoclonal and associated with EBV.[ 218 ] These patients may have durable remissions using standard chemotherapy regimens for aggressive lymphoma.[ 218 ][ 219 ][ 220 ] Instances of EBV-negative PTLD occur even later (median, 5 years posttransplant) and have a worse prognosis; R-CHOP chemotherapy can be applied directly in this circumstance.[ 221 ] A sustained clinical response after failure from chemotherapy was attained using an immunotoxin (anti-CD22 B-cell surface antigen antibody linked with ricin, a plant toxin).[ 222 ] An anti-interleukin-6 monoclonal antibody is also under clinical evaluation.[ 223 ]

True Histiocytic Lymphoma

True histiocytic lymphomas are very rare tumors that show histiocytic differentiation and express histiocytic markers in the absence of B-cell or T-cell lineage-specific immunologic markers.[ 224 ][ 225 ] Care must be taken with immunophenotypic tests to exclude ALCL or hemophagocytic syndromes caused by viral infections, especially EBV.

Therapeutic options

Therapy is modeled after the treatment of comparably staged diffuse large cell lymphomas, but the optimal approach remains to be defined.

Primary Effusion Lymphoma

Primary effusion lymphoma presents exclusively or mainly in the pleural, pericardial, or abdominal cavities in the absence of an identifiable tumor mass.[ 226 ] Patients are usually HIV seropositive, and the tumor usually contains Kaposi sarcoma–associated herpes virus/human herpes virus 8.[ 227 ]

Prognosis

The prognosis of primary effusion lymphoma is extremely poor.

Therapeutic approaches

Therapy is usually modeled after the treatment of comparably staged diffuse large cell lymphomas.

Plasmablastic Lymphoma

Plasmablastic lymphoma is most often seen in patients with HIV infection and is characterized by CD20-negative large B cells with plasmacytic features. This type of lymphoma has a very aggressive clinical course, including poor responses and short remissions with standard chemotherapy.[ 228 ] Anecdotal reports suggest using aggressive chemotherapy for Burkitt or lymphoblastic lymphoma, followed by SCT consolidation in responding patients, when feasible.[ 228 ][ 229 ][ 230 ]

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  186. Goy A, Kalayoglu Besisik S, Drach J, et al.: Longer-term follow-up and outcome by tumour cell proliferation rate (Ki-67) in patients with relapsed/refractory mantle cell lymphoma treated with lenalidomide on MCL-001(EMERGE) pivotal trial. Br J Haematol 170 (4): 496-503, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  187. Ruan J, Martin P, Shah B, et al.: Lenalidomide plus Rituximab as Initial Treatment for Mantle-Cell Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 373 (19): 1835-44, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  188. Wang ML, Rule S, Martin P, et al.: Targeting BTK with ibrutinib in relapsed or refractory mantle-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 369 (6): 507-16, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  189. Wang ML, Blum KA, Martin P, et al.: Long-term follow-up of MCL patients treated with single-agent ibrutinib: updated safety and efficacy results. Blood 126 (6): 739-45, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  190. Ruan J, Martin P, Christos P, et al.: Five-year follow-up of lenalidomide plus rituximab as initial treatment of mantle cell lymphoma. Blood 132 (19): 2016-2025, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  191. Kluin-Nelemans HC, Hoster E, Hermine O, et al.: Treatment of Older Patients With Mantle Cell Lymphoma (MCL): Long-Term Follow-Up of the Randomized European MCL Elderly Trial. J Clin Oncol 38 (3): 248-256, 2020.[PUBMED Abstract]
  192. Rummel MJ, Niederle N, Maschmeyer G, et al.: Bendamustine plus rituximab versus CHOP plus rituximab as first-line treatment for patients with indolent and mantle-cell lymphomas: an open-label, multicentre, randomised, phase 3 non-inferiority trial. Lancet 381 (9873): 1203-10, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  193. Robak T, Jin J, Pylypenko H, et al.: Frontline bortezomib, rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone (VR-CAP) versus rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone (R-CHOP) in transplantation-ineligible patients with newly diagnosed mantle cell lymphoma: final overall survival results of a randomised, open-label, phase 3 study. Lancet Oncol 19 (11): 1449-1458, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  194. Hermine O, Hoster E, Walewski J, et al.: Addition of high-dose cytarabine to immunochemotherapy before autologous stem-cell transplantation in patients aged 65 years or younger with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL Younger): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial of the European Mantle Cell Lymphoma Network. Lancet 388 (10044): 565-75, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
  195. Khouri IF, Lee MS, Saliba RM, et al.: Nonablative allogeneic stem-cell transplantation for advanced/recurrent mantle-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 21 (23): 4407-12, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  196. Dreyling M, Lenz G, Hoster E, et al.: Early consolidation by myeloablative radiochemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation in first remission significantly prolongs progression-free survival in mantle-cell lymphoma: results of a prospective randomized trial of the European MCL Network. Blood 105 (7): 2677-84, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  197. Geisler CH, Kolstad A, Laurell A, et al.: Long-term progression-free survival of mantle cell lymphoma after intensive front-line immunochemotherapy with in vivo-purged stem cell rescue: a nonrandomized phase 2 multicenter study by the Nordic Lymphoma Group. Blood 112 (7): 2687-93, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  198. Tam CS, Bassett R, Ledesma C, et al.: Mature results of the M. D. Anderson Cancer Center risk-adapted transplantation strategy in mantle cell lymphoma. Blood 113 (18): 4144-52, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
  199. Damon LE, Johnson JL, Niedzwiecki D, et al.: Immunochemotherapy and autologous stem-cell transplantation for untreated patients with mantle-cell lymphoma: CALGB 59909. J Clin Oncol 27 (36): 6101-8, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
  200. Fenske TS, Zhang MJ, Carreras J, et al.: Autologous or reduced-intensity conditioning allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation for chemotherapy-sensitive mantle-cell lymphoma: analysis of transplantation timing and modality. J Clin Oncol 32 (4): 273-81, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  201. Le Gouill S, Thieblemont C, Oberic L, et al.: Rituximab after Autologous Stem-Cell Transplantation in Mantle-Cell Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 377 (13): 1250-1260, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  202. Wang M, Fayad L, Wagner-Bartak N, et al.: Lenalidomide in combination with rituximab for patients with relapsed or refractory mantle-cell lymphoma: a phase 1/2 clinical trial. Lancet Oncol 13 (7): 716-23, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  203. Trněný M, Lamy T, Walewski J, et al.: Lenalidomide versus investigator's choice in relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma (MCL-002; SPRINT): a phase 2, randomised, multicentre trial. Lancet Oncol 17 (3): 319-31, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
  204. Dreyling M, Jurczak W, Jerkeman M, et al.: Ibrutinib versus temsirolimus in patients with relapsed or refractory mantle-cell lymphoma: an international, randomised, open-label, phase 3 study. Lancet 387 (10020): 770-8, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
  205. Tam CS, Anderson MA, Pott C, et al.: Ibrutinib plus Venetoclax for the Treatment of Mantle-Cell Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 378 (13): 1211-1223, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  206. Wang M, Rule S, Zinzani PL, et al.: Acalabrutinib in relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma (ACE-LY-004): a single-arm, multicentre, phase 2 trial. Lancet 391 (10121): 659-667, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  207. Martin P, Ruan J, Leonard JP: The potential for chemotherapy-free strategies in mantle cell lymphoma. Blood 130 (17): 1881-1888, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  208. Wang M, Munoz J, Goy A, et al.: KTE-X19 CAR T-Cell Therapy in Relapsed or Refractory Mantle-Cell Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 382 (14): 1331-1342, 2020.[PUBMED Abstract]
  209. Morrison VA, Dunn DL, Manivel JC, et al.: Clinical characteristics of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders. Am J Med 97 (1): 14-24, 1994.[PUBMED Abstract]
  210. Knowles DM, Cesarman E, Chadburn A, et al.: Correlative morphologic and molecular genetic analysis demonstrates three distinct categories of posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorders. Blood 85 (2): 552-65, 1995.[PUBMED Abstract]
  211. Leblond V, Dhedin N, Mamzer Bruneel MF, et al.: Identification of prognostic factors in 61 patients with posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorders. J Clin Oncol 19 (3): 772-8, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  212. Ghobrial IM, Habermann TM, Maurer MJ, et al.: Prognostic analysis for survival in adult solid organ transplant recipients with post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders. J Clin Oncol 23 (30): 7574-82, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  213. Evens AM, David KA, Helenowski I, et al.: Multicenter analysis of 80 solid organ transplantation recipients with post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disease: outcomes and prognostic factors in the modern era. J Clin Oncol 28 (6): 1038-46, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  214. Dierickx D, Tousseyn T, Gheysens O: How I treat posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders. Blood 126 (20): 2274-83, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  215. Kuehnle I, Huls MH, Liu Z, et al.: CD20 monoclonal antibody (rituximab) for therapy of Epstein-Barr virus lymphoma after hemopoietic stem-cell transplantation. Blood 95 (4): 1502-5, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
  216. Trappe RU, Dierickx D, Zimmermann H, et al.: Response to Rituximab Induction Is a Predictive Marker in B-Cell Post-Transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorder and Allows Successful Stratification Into Rituximab or R-CHOP Consolidation in an International, Prospective, Multicenter Phase II Trial. J Clin Oncol 35 (5): 536-543, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  217. Leblond V, Sutton L, Dorent R, et al.: Lymphoproliferative disorders after organ transplantation: a report of 24 cases observed in a single center. J Clin Oncol 13 (4): 961-8, 1995.[PUBMED Abstract]
  218. Mamzer-Bruneel MF, Lomé C, Morelon E, et al.: Durable remission after aggressive chemotherapy for very late post-kidney transplant lymphoproliferation: A report of 16 cases observed in a single center. J Clin Oncol 18 (21): 3622-32, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
  219. Swinnen LJ: Durable remission after aggressive chemotherapy for post-cardiac transplant lymphoproliferation. Leuk Lymphoma 28 (1-2): 89-101, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  220. McCarthy M, Ramage J, McNair A, et al.: The clinical diversity and role of chemotherapy in lymphoproliferative disorder in liver transplant recipients. J Hepatol 27 (6): 1015-21, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  221. Leblond V, Davi F, Charlotte F, et al.: Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders not associated with Epstein-Barr virus: a distinct entity? J Clin Oncol 16 (6): 2052-9, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  222. Senderowicz AM, Vitetta E, Headlee D, et al.: Complete sustained response of a refractory, post-transplantation, large B-cell lymphoma to an anti-CD22 immunotoxin. Ann Intern Med 126 (11): 882-5, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  223. Haddad E, Paczesny S, Leblond V, et al.: Treatment of B-lymphoproliferative disorder with a monoclonal anti-interleukin-6 antibody in 12 patients: a multicenter phase 1-2 clinical trial. Blood 97 (6): 1590-7, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  224. Soslow RA, Davis RE, Warnke RA, et al.: True histiocytic lymphoma following therapy for lymphoblastic neoplasms. Blood 87 (12): 5207-12, 1996.[PUBMED Abstract]
  225. Kamel OW, Gocke CD, Kell DL, et al.: True histiocytic lymphoma: a study of 12 cases based on current definition. Leuk Lymphoma 18 (1-2): 81-6, 1995.[PUBMED Abstract]
  226. Nador RG, Cesarman E, Chadburn A, et al.: Primary effusion lymphoma: a distinct clinicopathologic entity associated with the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus. Blood 88 (2): 645-56, 1996.[PUBMED Abstract]
  227. Shimada K, Hayakawa F, Kiyoi H: Biology and management of primary effusion lymphoma. Blood 132 (18): 1879-1888, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  228. Castillo JJ, Bibas M, Miranda RN: The biology and treatment of plasmablastic lymphoma. Blood 125 (15): 2323-30, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  229. Al-Malki MM, Castillo JJ, Sloan JM, et al.: Hematopoietic cell transplantation for plasmablastic lymphoma: a review. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 20 (12): 1877-84, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  230. Cattaneo C, Re A, Ungari M, et al.: Plasmablastic lymphoma among human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients: results of a single center's experience. Leuk Lymphoma 56 (1): 267-9, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
Stage Information for Adult NHL

Stage is important in selecting a treatment for patients with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Chest and abdominal computed tomography (CT) scans are usually part of the staging evaluation for all lymphoma patients. The staging system is similar to the staging system used for Hodgkin lymphoma (HL).

Common among patients with NHL is involvement of the following:

Cytologic examination of cerebrospinal fluid may be positive in patients with aggressive NHL. Involvement of hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes is less common than in HL. Mediastinal adenopathy, however, is a prominent feature of lymphoblastic lymphoma and primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma, entities primarily found in young adults.

The majority of patients with NHL present with advanced (stage III or stage IV) disease that can often be identified with limited staging procedures such as CT scanning and biopsies of the bone marrow and other accessible sites of involvement. Laparoscopic biopsy or laparotomy is not required for staging but may be necessary to establish a diagnosis or histologic type.[ 1 ] Positron emission tomography (PET) with fluorine F 18-fludeoxyglucose can be used for initial staging and for follow-up after therapy as a supplement to CT scanning.[ 2 ] Interim PET scans after two to four cycles of therapy did not provide reliable prognostic information because of problems of interobserver reproducibility in a large cooperative group trial (ECOG-E344 [NCT00274924]) and lack of difference in outcome between PET-negative and PET-positive/biopsy-negative patients in two prospective trials [ 3 ][ 4 ][ 5 ] and in a meta-analysis.[ 6 ] For patients with follicular lymphoma, a positive PET result after therapy has a worse prognosis; however, it is unclear whether a positive PET result is predictive when further or different therapy is implemented.[ 7 ]

In a retrospective study of 130 patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, PET scanning identified all clinically important marrow involvement from lymphoma, and bone marrow biopsy did not upstage any patient.[ 8 ] Bone marrow biopsies are required for some clinical trials and when the identification of marrow involvement would change the therapeutic plan.

Staging Subclassification System

Lugano Classification

The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) has adopted the Lugano classification to evaluate and stage lymphoma.[ 9 ] The Lugano classification system replaces the Ann Arbor classification system, which was adopted in 1971 at the Ann Arbor Conference,[ 10 ] with some modifications 18 years later from the Cotswolds meeting.[ 11 ] [ 12 ]

Table 2. Lugano Classification for Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin Lymphomaa
Stage Stage Description Illustration
CSF = cerebrospinal fluid; CT = computed tomography; DLBCL = diffuse large B-cell lymphoma; NHL = non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
aHodgkin and Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas. In: Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 8th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2017, pp. 937–58.
bStage II bulky may be considered either early or advanced stage based on lymphoma histology and prognostic factors.
cThe definition of disease bulk varies according to lymphoma histology. In the Lugano classification, bulk ln Hodgkin lymphoma is defined as a mass greater than one-third of the thoracic diameter on CT of the chest or a mass >10 cm. For NHL, the recommended definitions of bulk vary by lymphoma histology. In follicular lymphoma, 6 cm has been suggested based on the Follicular Lymphoma International Prognostic Index-2 and its validation. In DLBCL, cutoffs ranging from 5 cm to 10 cm have been used, although 10 cm is recommended.
Limited stage
I Involvement of a single lymphatic site (i.e., nodal region, Waldeyer’s ring, thymus, or spleen).  
Stage I adult lymphoma; drawing shows cancer in one lymph node group and in the spleen. Also shown are the Waldeyer’s ring and the thymus. An inset shows a lymph node with a lymph vessel, an artery, and a vein. Cancer cells are shown in the lymph node.

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IE Single extralymphatic site in the absence of nodal involvement (rare in Hodgkin lymphoma).  
II Involvement of two or more lymph node regions on the same side of the diaphragm.  
Stage II adult lymphoma; drawing shows cancer in two lymph node groups above the diaphragm and below the diaphragm. An inset shows a lymph node with a lymph vessel, an artery, and a vein. Cancer cells are shown in the lymph node.

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IIE Contiguous extralymphatic extension from a nodal site with or without involvement of other lymph node regions on the same side of the diaphragm.  
Stage IIE adult lymphoma; drawing shows cancer that has spread from a group of lymph nodes to a nearby area. Also shown is a lung and the diaphragm. An inset shows a lymph node with a lymph vessel, an artery, and a vein. Cancer cells are shown in the lymph node.

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II bulkyb Stage II with disease bulk.c  
Advanced stage
III Involvement of lymph node regions on both sides of the diaphragm; nodes above the diaphragm with spleen involvement.  
Stage III adult lymphoma; drawing shows the right and left sides of the body. The right side of the body shows cancer in a group of lymph nodes above the diaphragm and below the diaphragm. The left side of the body shows cancer in a group of lymph nodes above the diaphragm and cancer in the spleen.

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IV Diffuse or disseminated involvement of one or more extralymphatic organs, with or without associated lymph node involvement; or noncontiguous extralymphatic organ involvement in conjunction with nodal stage II disease; or any extralymphatic organ involvement in nodal stage III disease. Stage IV includes any involvement of the CSF, bone marrow, liver, or multiple lung lesions (other than by direct extension in stage IIE disease).  
Stage IV adult lymphoma; drawing shows four panels: (a) the top left panel shows cancer in the liver; (b) the top right panel shows cancer in the left lung and in two groups of lymph nodes below the diaphragm; (c) the bottom left panel shows cancer in the left lung and in a group of lymph nodes above the diaphragm and below the diaphragm; and (d) the bottom right panel shows cancer in both lungs, the liver, and the bone marrow (pullout). Also shown is primary cancer in the lymph nodes and a pullout of the brain with cerebrospinal fluid (in blue).

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Note: Hodgkin lymphoma uses A or B designation with stage group. A/B is no longer used in NHL.

Occasionally, specialized staging systems are used. The physician should be aware of the system used in a specific report.

The E designation is used when extranodal lymphoid malignancies arise in tissues separate from, but near, the major lymphatic aggregates. Stage IV refers to disease that is diffusely spread throughout an extranodal site, such as the liver. If pathologic proof of involvement of one or more extralymphatic sites has been documented, the symbol for the site of involvement, followed by a plus sign (+), is listed.

Table 3. Notation to Identify Specific Sites
N = nodes H = liver L = lung M = bone marrow
S = spleen P = pleura O = bone D = skin

Current practice assigns a clinical stage based on the findings of the clinical evaluation and a pathologic stage based on the findings made as a result of invasive procedures beyond the initial biopsy.

For example, on percutaneous biopsy, a patient with inguinal adenopathy and a positive lymphangiogram without systemic symptoms might be found to have involvement of the liver and bone marrow. The precise stage of such a patient would be clinical stage IIA, pathologic stage IVA(H+)(M+).

A number of other factors that are not included in the above staging system are important for the staging and prognosis of patients with NHL. These factors include the following:

The National Comprehensive Cancer Network International Prognostic Index (IPI) for aggressive NHL (diffuse large cell lymphoma) identifies five significant risk factors prognostic of OS:[ 13 ]

Risk scores:

Age-adjusted and stage-adjusted modifications of this IPI are used for younger patients with localized disease.[ 14 ] Shorter intervals of time between diagnosis and treatment appear to be a surrogate for poor prognostic biologic factors.[ 15 ]

The BCL2 gene and rearrangement of the MYC gene or dual overexpression of the MYC gene, or both, confer a particularly poor prognosis.[ 16 ][ 17 ] Patients at high risk of relapse may benefit from consolidation therapy or other approaches under clinical evaluation.[ 18 ] Molecular profiles of gene expression using DNA microarrays may help to stratify patients in the future for therapies directed at specific targets and to better predict survival after standard chemotherapy.[ 19 ]

参考文献
  1. Mann GB, Conlon KC, LaQuaglia M, et al.: Emerging role of laparoscopy in the diagnosis of lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 16 (5): 1909-15, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Barrington SF, Mikhaeel NG, Kostakoglu L, et al.: Role of imaging in the staging and response assessment of lymphoma: consensus of the International Conference on Malignant Lymphomas Imaging Working Group. J Clin Oncol 32 (27): 3048-58, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Horning SJ, Juweid ME, Schöder H, et al.: Interim positron emission tomography scans in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: an independent expert nuclear medicine evaluation of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group E3404 study. Blood 115 (4): 775-7; quiz 918, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Moskowitz CH, Schöder H, Teruya-Feldstein J, et al.: Risk-adapted dose-dense immunochemotherapy determined by interim FDG-PET in Advanced-stage diffuse large B-Cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 28 (11): 1896-903, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Pregno P, Chiappella A, Bellò M, et al.: Interim 18-FDG-PET/CT failed to predict the outcome in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma patients treated at the diagnosis with rituximab-CHOP. Blood 119 (9): 2066-73, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Sun N, Zhao J, Qiao W, et al.: Predictive value of interim PET/CT in DLBCL treated with R-CHOP: meta-analysis. Biomed Res Int 2015: 648572, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Pyo J, Won Kim K, Jacene HA, et al.: End-therapy positron emission tomography for treatment response assessment in follicular lymphoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Cancer Res 19 (23): 6566-77, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Khan AB, Barrington SF, Mikhaeel NG, et al.: PET-CT staging of DLBCL accurately identifies and provides new insight into the clinical significance of bone marrow involvement. Blood 122 (1): 61-7, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. In: Amin MB, Edge SB, Greene FL, et al., eds.: AJCC Cancer Staging Manual. 8th ed. New York, NY: Springer, 2017, pp. 937–58.[PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Carbone PP, Kaplan HS, Musshoff K, et al.: Report of the Committee on Hodgkin's Disease Staging Classification. Cancer Res 31 (11): 1860-1, 1971.[PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Lister TA, Crowther D, Sutcliffe SB, et al.: Report of a committee convened to discuss the evaluation and staging of patients with Hodgkin's disease: Cotswolds meeting. J Clin Oncol 7 (11): 1630-6, 1989.[PUBMED Abstract]
  12. National Cancer Institute sponsored study of classifications of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas: summary and description of a working formulation for clinical usage. The Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Pathologic Classification Project. Cancer 49 (10): 2112-35, 1982.[PUBMED Abstract]
  13. Zhou Z, Sehn LH, Rademaker AW, et al.: An enhanced International Prognostic Index (NCCN-IPI) for patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma treated in the rituximab era. Blood 123 (6): 837-42, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  14. Møller MB, Christensen BE, Pedersen NT: Prognosis of localized diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in younger patients. Cancer 98 (3): 516-21, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  15. Maurer MJ, Ghesquières H, Link BK, et al.: Diagnosis-to-Treatment Interval Is an Important Clinical Factor in Newly Diagnosed Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma and Has Implication for Bias in Clinical Trials. J Clin Oncol 36 (16): 1603-1610, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  16. Scott DW, King RL, Staiger AM, et al.: High-grade B-cell lymphoma with MYC and BCL2 and/or BCL6 rearrangements with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma morphology. Blood 131 (18): 2060-2064, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  17. Horn H, Ziepert M, Becher C, et al.: MYC status in concert with BCL2 and BCL6 expression predicts outcome in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Blood 121 (12): 2253-63, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  18. A predictive model for aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. The International Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Prognostic Factors Project. N Engl J Med 329 (14): 987-94, 1993.[PUBMED Abstract]
  19. Sha C, Barrans S, Cucco F, et al.: Molecular High-Grade B-Cell Lymphoma: Defining a Poor-Risk Group That Requires Different Approaches to Therapy. J Clin Oncol 37 (3): 202-212, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
Treatment Option Overview for Adult NHL

Treatment of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) depends on the histologic type and stage. Many of the improvements in survival have been made using clinical trials (experimental therapy) that have attempted to improve on the best available accepted therapy (conventional or standard therapy).

In asymptomatic patients with indolent forms of advanced NHL, treatment may be deferred until the patient becomes symptomatic as the disease progresses. When treatment is deferred, the clinical course of patients with indolent NHL varies; frequent and careful observation is required so that effective treatment can be initiated when the clinical course of the disease accelerates. Some patients have a prolonged indolent course, but others have disease that rapidly evolves into more aggressive types of NHL that require immediate treatment.

Radiation techniques differ somewhat from those used in the treatment of Hodgkin lymphoma. The dose of radiation therapy usually varies from 25 Gy to 50 Gy and is dependent on factors that include the histologic type of lymphoma, the patient’s stage and overall condition, the goal of treatment (curative or palliative), the proximity of sensitive surrounding organs, and whether the patient is being treated with radiation therapy alone or in combination with chemotherapy. Given the patterns of disease presentations and relapse, treatment may need to include unusual sites such as Waldeyer ring, epitrochlear, or mesenteric nodes. The associated morbidity of the treatment must be considered carefully. The majority of patients who receive radiation are usually treated on only one side of the diaphragm. Localized presentations of extranodal NHL may be treated with involved-field techniques with significant (>50%) success.

Table 4. Standard Treatment Options for Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL)
Stage Standard Treatment Options
IF-XRT = involved-field radiation therapy; PI3K = phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; R-CHOP = rituximab, an anti–CD20 monoclonal antibody, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone.
Indolent Stage I and Indolent, Contiguous Stage II Adult NHL Radiation therapy
Rituximab with or without chemotherapy
Watchful waiting
Other therapies as designated for patients with advanced-stage disease
Indolent, Noncontiguous Stage II/III/IV Adult NHL Watchful waiting for asymptomatic patients
Rituximab with or without chemotherapy
Maintenance rituximab
Obinutuzumab
PI3K inhibitors
Lenalidomide and rituximab
Radiolabeled anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies
Indolent, Recurrent Adult NHL Chemotherapy (single agent or combination)
Rituximab
Obinutuzumab
Lenalidomide
Radiolabeled anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies
Palliative radiation therapy
Aggressive Stage I and Aggressive, Contiguous Stage II Adult NHL R-CHOP with or without IF-XRT
Aggressive, Noncontiguous Stage II/III/IV Adult NHL R-CHOP
Other combination chemotherapy
Lymphoblastic Lymphoma/Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia Intensive therapy
Radiation therapy
Diffuse, Small, Noncleaved-Cell/Burkitt Lymphoma Aggressive multidrug regimens
Central nervous system (CNS) prophylaxis
Aggressive, Recurrent Adult NHL Bone marrow or stem cell transplantation
Re-treatment with standard agents
Palliative radiation therapy

Even though standard treatment in patients with lymphomas can cure a significant fraction, numerous clinical trials that explore improvements in treatment are in progress. If possible, patients can be included in these studies. Standardized guidelines for response assessment have been suggested for use in clinical trials.[ 1 ]

Several retrospective reviews suggest routine surveillance scans after attaining clinical complete remission after induction therapy for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma offer little to no value. Prognostic value is also difficult to identify for an interim positron emission tomography-computed tomography scan during induction therapy for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.[ 2 ][ 3 ][ 4 ][ 5 ]

Aggressive lymphomas are increasingly seen in HIV-positive patients; treatment of these patients requires special consideration. (Refer to the PDQ summary on AIDS-Related Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)

In addition to screening for HIV among patients with aggressive lymphomas, active hepatitis B or hepatitis C can be assessed before treatment with rituximab and/or chemotherapy.[ 6 ][ 7 ] Patients with detectable hepatitis B viral loads benefit from prophylaxis with entecavir in the context of rituximab therapy.[ 8 ][ 9 ] Patients with a resolved hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection (HBsAg negative + HBcAb positive) are at risk of reactivation of HBV and require monitoring of HBV DNA. Prophylactic nucleoside therapy lowered HBV reactivation from 10.8% to 2.1% in a retrospective study of 326 patients.[ 10 ] Similarly, prophylaxis for herpes zoster with acyclovir or valacyclovir and prophylaxis for pneumocystis with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole or dapsone are usually applied with rituximab with or without combination chemotherapy.

In addition to screening for HIV among patients with aggressive lymphomas, active hepatitis B or hepatitis C can be assessed before treatment with rituximab and/or chemotherapy.[ 6 ][ 7 ] Even patients with undetectable hepatitis B viral loads after remote past infection benefit from prophylaxis with entecavir in the context of rituximab therapy.[ 8 ][ 9 ] Similarly, prophylaxis for herpes zoster with acyclovir or valacyclovir and prophylaxis for pneumocystis with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole or dapsone are usually applied with rituximab with or without combination chemotherapy.

Among 2,508 patients in a Danish registry, the incidence of doxorubicin-induced congestive heart failure increased for 115 non-Hodgkin lymphoma survivors with a history of cardiac disease (hazard ratio [HR], 2.71; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.15−6.36) and/or multiple cardiovascular risk factors (HR, 2.86; 95% CI, 1.56−5.23).[ 11 ]

Several unusual presentations of lymphoma occur that often require somewhat modified approaches to staging and therapy. The reader is referred to reviews for a more detailed description of extranodal presentations in the gastrointestinal system,[ 12 ][ 13 ][ 14 ][ 15 ][ 16 ][ 17 ][ 18 ][ 19 ][ 20 ] thyroid,[ 21 ][ 22 ] spleen,[ 23 ] testis,[ 24 ][ 25 ][ 26 ] paranasal sinuses,[ 27 ][ 28 ][ 29 ][ 30 ] bone,[ 31 ][ 32 ] orbit,[ 33 ][ 34 ][ 35 ][ 36 ][ 37 ] and skin.[ 38 ][ 39 ][ 40 ][ 41 ][ 42 ][ 43 ][ 44 ][ 45 ][ 46 ][ 47 ]

(Refer to the PDQ summary on Primary CNS Lymphoma Treatment for more information.)

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.

参考文献
  1. Cheson BD, Horning SJ, Coiffier B, et al.: Report of an international workshop to standardize response criteria for non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. NCI Sponsored International Working Group. J Clin Oncol 17 (4): 1244, 1999.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Mamot C, Klingbiel D, Hitz F, et al.: Final Results of a Prospective Evaluation of the Predictive Value of Interim Positron Emission Tomography in Patients With Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Treated With R-CHOP-14 (SAKK 38/07). J Clin Oncol 33 (23): 2523-9, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Thompson CA, Ghesquieres H, Maurer MJ, et al.: Utility of routine post-therapy surveillance imaging in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 32 (31): 3506-12, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. El-Galaly TC, Jakobsen LH, Hutchings M, et al.: Routine Imaging for Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma in First Complete Remission Does Not Improve Post-Treatment Survival: A Danish-Swedish Population-Based Study. J Clin Oncol 33 (34): 3993-8, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Huntington SF, Svoboda J, Doshi JA: Cost-effectiveness analysis of routine surveillance imaging of patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in first remission. J Clin Oncol 33 (13): 1467-74, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Niitsu N, Hagiwara Y, Tanae K, et al.: Prospective analysis of hepatitis B virus reactivation in patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma after rituximab combination chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol 28 (34): 5097-100, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Dong HJ, Ni LN, Sheng GF, et al.: Risk of hepatitis B virus (HBV) reactivation in non-Hodgkin lymphoma patients receiving rituximab-chemotherapy: a meta-analysis. J Clin Virol 57 (3): 209-14, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Huang YH, Hsiao LT, Hong YC, et al.: Randomized controlled trial of entecavir prophylaxis for rituximab-associated hepatitis B virus reactivation in patients with lymphoma and resolved hepatitis B. J Clin Oncol 31 (22): 2765-72, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Li H, Zhang HM, Chen LF, et al.: Prophylactic lamivudine to improve the outcome of HBsAg-positive lymphoma patients during chemotherapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 39 (1): 80-92, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Kusumoto S, Arcaini L, Hong X, et al.: Risk of HBV reactivation in patients with B-cell lymphomas receiving obinutuzumab or rituximab immunochemotherapy. Blood 133 (2): 137-146, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Salz T, Zabor EC, de Nully Brown P, et al.: Preexisting Cardiovascular Risk and Subsequent Heart Failure Among Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Survivors. J Clin Oncol 35 (34): 3837-3843, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  12. Maor MH, Velasquez WS, Fuller LM, et al.: Stomach conservation in stages IE and IIE gastric non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 8 (2): 266-71, 1990.[PUBMED Abstract]
  13. Salles G, Herbrecht R, Tilly H, et al.: Aggressive primary gastrointestinal lymphomas: review of 91 patients treated with the LNH-84 regimen. A study of the Groupe d'Etude des Lymphomes Agressifs. Am J Med 90 (1): 77-84, 1991.[PUBMED Abstract]
  14. Taal BG, Burgers JM, van Heerde P, et al.: The clinical spectrum and treatment of primary non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of the stomach. Ann Oncol 4 (10): 839-46, 1993.[PUBMED Abstract]
  15. Tondini C, Giardini R, Bozzetti F, et al.: Combined modality treatment for primary gastrointestinal non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: the Milan Cancer Institute experience. Ann Oncol 4 (10): 831-7, 1993.[PUBMED Abstract]
  16. d'Amore F, Brincker H, Grønbaek K, et al.: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of the gastrointestinal tract: a population-based analysis of incidence, geographic distribution, clinicopathologic presentation features, and prognosis. Danish Lymphoma Study Group. J Clin Oncol 12 (8): 1673-84, 1994.[PUBMED Abstract]
  17. Haim N, Leviov M, Ben-Arieh Y, et al.: Intermediate and high-grade gastric non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a prospective study of non-surgical treatment with primary chemotherapy, with or without radiotherapy. Leuk Lymphoma 17 (3-4): 321-6, 1995.[PUBMED Abstract]
  18. Koch P, del Valle F, Berdel WE, et al.: Primary gastrointestinal non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: I. Anatomic and histologic distribution, clinical features, and survival data of 371 patients registered in the German Multicenter Study GIT NHL 01/92. J Clin Oncol 19 (18): 3861-73, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  19. Koch P, del Valle F, Berdel WE, et al.: Primary gastrointestinal non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: II. Combined surgical and conservative or conservative management only in localized gastric lymphoma--results of the prospective German Multicenter Study GIT NHL 01/92. J Clin Oncol 19 (18): 3874-83, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  20. Koch P, Probst A, Berdel WE, et al.: Treatment results in localized primary gastric lymphoma: data of patients registered within the German multicenter study (GIT NHL 02/96). J Clin Oncol 23 (28): 7050-9, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  21. Blair TJ, Evans RG, Buskirk SJ, et al.: Radiotherapeutic management of primary thyroid lymphoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 11 (2): 365-70, 1985.[PUBMED Abstract]
  22. Junor EJ, Paul J, Reed NS: Primary non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of the thyroid. Eur J Surg Oncol 18 (4): 313-21, 1992.[PUBMED Abstract]
  23. Morel P, Dupriez B, Gosselin B, et al.: Role of early splenectomy in malignant lymphomas with prominent splenic involvement (primary lymphomas of the spleen). A study of 59 cases. Cancer 71 (1): 207-15, 1993.[PUBMED Abstract]
  24. Zucca E, Conconi A, Mughal TI, et al.: Patterns of outcome and prognostic factors in primary large-cell lymphoma of the testis in a survey by the International Extranodal Lymphoma Study Group. J Clin Oncol 21 (1): 20-7, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  25. Vitolo U, Chiappella A, Ferreri AJ, et al.: First-line treatment for primary testicular diffuse large B-cell lymphoma with rituximab-CHOP, CNS prophylaxis, and contralateral testis irradiation: final results of an international phase II trial. J Clin Oncol 29 (20): 2766-72, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
  26. Cheah CY, Wirth A, Seymour JF: Primary testicular lymphoma. Blood 123 (4): 486-93, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  27. Liang R, Todd D, Chan TK, et al.: Treatment outcome and prognostic factors for primary nasal lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 13 (3): 666-70, 1995.[PUBMED Abstract]
  28. Cheung MM, Chan JK, Lau WH, et al.: Primary non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of the nose and nasopharynx: clinical features, tumor immunophenotype, and treatment outcome in 113 patients. J Clin Oncol 16 (1): 70-7, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  29. Hausdorff J, Davis E, Long G, et al.: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of the paranasal sinuses: clinical and pathological features, and response to combined-modality therapy. Cancer J Sci Am 3 (5): 303-11, 1997 Sep-Oct.[PUBMED Abstract]
  30. Sasai K, Yamabe H, Kokubo M, et al.: Head-and-neck stages I and II extranodal non-Hodgkin's lymphomas: real classification and selection for treatment modality. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 48 (1): 153-60, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
  31. Ferreri AJ, Reni M, Ceresoli GL, et al.: Therapeutic management with adriamycin-containing chemotherapy and radiotherapy of monostotic and polyostotic primary non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of bone in adults. Cancer Invest 16 (8): 554-61, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  32. Dubey P, Ha CS, Besa PC, et al.: Localized primary malignant lymphoma of bone. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 37 (5): 1087-93, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  33. Martinet S, Ozsahin M, Belkacémi Y, et al.: Outcome and prognostic factors in orbital lymphoma: a Rare Cancer Network study on 90 consecutive patients treated with radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 55 (4): 892-8, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  34. Uno T, Isobe K, Shikama N, et al.: Radiotherapy for extranodal, marginal zone, B-cell lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue originating in the ocular adnexa: a multiinstitutional, retrospective review of 50 patients. Cancer 98 (4): 865-71, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  35. Sjö LD, Ralfkiaer E, Juhl BR, et al.: Primary lymphoma of the lacrimal sac: an EORTC ophthalmic oncology task force study. Br J Ophthalmol 90 (8): 1004-9, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  36. Stefanovic A, Lossos IS: Extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of the ocular adnexa. Blood 114 (3): 501-10, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
  37. Sjö LD: Ophthalmic lymphoma: epidemiology and pathogenesis. Acta Ophthalmol 87 Thesis 1: 1-20, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
  38. Geelen FA, Vermeer MH, Meijer CJ, et al.: bcl-2 protein expression in primary cutaneous large B-cell lymphoma is site-related. J Clin Oncol 16 (6): 2080-5, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  39. Pandolfino TL, Siegel RS, Kuzel TM, et al.: Primary cutaneous B-cell lymphoma: review and current concepts. J Clin Oncol 18 (10): 2152-68, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
  40. Sarris AH, Braunschweig I, Medeiros LJ, et al.: Primary cutaneous non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of Ann Arbor stage I: preferential cutaneous relapses but high cure rate with doxorubicin-based therapy. J Clin Oncol 19 (2): 398-405, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  41. Grange F, Bekkenk MW, Wechsler J, et al.: Prognostic factors in primary cutaneous large B-cell lymphomas: a European multicenter study. J Clin Oncol 19 (16): 3602-10, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  42. Mirza I, Macpherson N, Paproski S, et al.: Primary cutaneous follicular lymphoma: an assessment of clinical, histopathologic, immunophenotypic, and molecular features. J Clin Oncol 20 (3): 647-55, 2002.[PUBMED Abstract]
  43. Smith BD, Glusac EJ, McNiff JM, et al.: Primary cutaneous B-cell lymphoma treated with radiotherapy: a comparison of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer and the WHO classification systems. J Clin Oncol 22 (4): 634-9, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  44. Willemze R, Jaffe ES, Burg G, et al.: WHO-EORTC classification for cutaneous lymphomas. Blood 105 (10): 3768-85, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  45. El-Helw L, Goodwin S, Slater D, et al.: Primary B-cell lymphoma of the skin: the Sheffield Lymphoma Group Experience (1984-2003). Int J Oncol 25 (5): 1453-8, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  46. Zinzani PL, Quaglino P, Pimpinelli N, et al.: Prognostic factors in primary cutaneous B-cell lymphoma: the Italian Study Group for Cutaneous Lymphomas. J Clin Oncol 24 (9): 1376-82, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  47. Senff NJ, Noordijk EM, Kim YH, et al.: European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer and International Society for Cutaneous Lymphoma consensus recommendations for the management of cutaneous B-cell lymphomas. Blood 112 (5): 1600-9, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
Treatment for Indolent Stage I and Indolent, Contiguous Stage II Adult NHL

Although localized presentations are uncommon in non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), the goal of treatment is to cure the disease in patients who are shown to have truly localized occurrence after undergoing appropriate staging procedures.

Standard Treatment Options for Indolent Stage I and Indolent, Contiguous Stage II Adult NHL

Standard treatment options for indolent stage I and indolent, contiguous stage II adult NHL include the following:

  1. Radiation therapy.
  2. Rituximab with or without chemotherapy.
  3. Watchful waiting.
  4. Other therapies as designated for patients with advanced-stage disease.

In a prospective randomized trial, 150 patients with stage I or stage II follicular lymphoma were randomly assigned to 30 Gy of involved-field radiation therapy alone or radiation therapy plus six cycles of R-CVP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisolone). With a median follow-up of 9.6 years, the 10-year progression-free survival favored combined modality therapy 59% (95% confidence interval (CI), 46%–74%) versus 41% (95% CI, 30%–57%) (P = .033), but with no difference in overall survival (OS) (87% and 95%, P = .40).[ 1 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]

The National Lymphocare Study identified 471 patients with stage I follicular lymphoma. Of those patients, 206 were rigorously staged with a bone marrow aspirate and biopsy, and computed tomography (CT) scans or positron emission tomography (PET)-CT scans.[ 2 ] Nonrandomized treatments included radiation therapy (27%), rituximab-chemotherapy (R-chemotherapy) (28%), watchful waiting (17%), R-chemotherapy plus radiation therapy (13%), and rituximab alone (12%), although more than one-third of the patients started with expectant therapy. With a median follow-up of 57 months, PFS favored R-chemotherapy or R-chemotherapy plus radiation therapy, but OS was nearly identical, all over 90%.[ 2 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiD] Clinical trials are required to answer questions such as:[ 3 ]

Radiation therapy

Long-term disease control within radiation fields can be achieved in a significant number of patients with indolent stage I or stage II NHL by using dosages of radiation that usually range from 25 Gy to 40 Gy to involved sites or to extended fields that cover adjacent nodal sites.[ 1 ][ 4 ][ 5 ][ 6 ] Almost half of all patients treated with radiation therapy alone will relapse out-of-field within 10 years.[ 1 ][ 6 ][ 7 ] Very low-dose radiation therapy with 4 Gy (2 Gy × 2 fractions) can result in 50% remission rates for patients who cannot tolerate higher doses.[ 8 ] In situations in which mediastinal radiation would encompass the left side of the heart or would increase breast cancer risk in young female patients, proton therapy may be considered to reduce the radiation dose to organs at risk.[ 9 ]

Rituximab with or without chemotherapy

For symptomatic patients who require therapy, when radiation therapy is contraindicated or when an alternative treatment is preferred, rituximab with or without chemotherapy can be employed (as outlined below for more advanced-stage patients). The value of adjuvant treatment with radiation to decrease relapse, plus rituximab (an anti–CD20 monoclonal antibody) either alone or in combination with chemotherapy, has been extrapolated from trials of patients with advanced-stage disease and has not been confirmed.[ 10 ][ 11 ]

Watchful waiting

Watchful waiting can be considered for asymptomatic patients.[ 12 ] Watchful waiting has never been compared with upfront radiation therapy in a prospective randomized trial; a retrospective analysis of the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results Program (SEER) database over 30 years showed improved outcomes for upfront radiation therapy.[ 13 ]

Other therapies as designated for patients with advanced-stage disease

Patients with involvement that is not able to be encompassed by radiation therapy are treated as outlined for patients with stage III or stage IV low-grade lymphoma.

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.

参考文献
  1. MacManus M, Fisher R, Roos D, et al.: Randomized Trial of Systemic Therapy After Involved-Field Radiotherapy in Patients With Early-Stage Follicular Lymphoma: TROG 99.03. J Clin Oncol 36 (29): 2918-2925, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Friedberg JW, Byrtek M, Link BK, et al.: Effectiveness of first-line management strategies for stage I follicular lymphoma: analysis of the National LymphoCare Study. J Clin Oncol 30 (27): 3368-75, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Montoto S: Management of localized-stage follicular lymphoma: changing the paradigm? J Clin Oncol 30 (27): 3328-9, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Haas RL, Poortmans P, de Jong D, et al.: High response rates and lasting remissions after low-dose involved field radiotherapy in indolent lymphomas. J Clin Oncol 21 (13): 2474-80, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Guckenberger M, Alexandrow N, Flentje M: Radiotherapy alone for stage I-III low grade follicular lymphoma: long-term outcome and comparison of extended field and total nodal irradiation. Radiat Oncol 7: 103, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Brady JL, Binkley MS, Hajj C, et al.: Definitive radiotherapy for localized follicular lymphoma staged by 18F-FDG PET-CT: a collaborative study by ILROG. Blood 133 (3): 237-245, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Guadagnolo BA, Li S, Neuberg D, et al.: Long-term outcome and mortality trends in early-stage, Grade 1-2 follicular lymphoma treated with radiation therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 64 (3): 928-34, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Hoskin PJ, Kirkwood AA, Popova B, et al.: 4 Gy versus 24 Gy radiotherapy for patients with indolent lymphoma (FORT): a randomised phase 3 non-inferiority trial. Lancet Oncol 15 (4): 457-63, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Dabaja BS, Hoppe BS, Plastaras JP, et al.: Proton therapy for adults with mediastinal lymphomas: the International Lymphoma Radiation Oncology Group guidelines. Blood 132 (16): 1635-1646, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Kelsey SM, Newland AC, Hudson GV, et al.: A British National Lymphoma Investigation randomised trial of single agent chlorambucil plus radiotherapy versus radiotherapy alone in low grade, localised non-Hodgkins lymphoma. Med Oncol 11 (1): 19-25, 1994.[PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Seymour JF, Pro B, Fuller LM, et al.: Long-term follow-up of a prospective study of combined modality therapy for stage I-II indolent non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 21 (11): 2115-22, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  12. Advani R, Rosenberg SA, Horning SJ: Stage I and II follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: long-term follow-up of no initial therapy. J Clin Oncol 22 (8): 1454-9, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  13. Pugh TJ, Ballonoff A, Newman F, et al.: Improved survival in patients with early stage low-grade follicular lymphoma treated with radiation: a Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database analysis. Cancer 116 (16): 3843-51, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
Treatment for Indolent, Noncontiguous Stage II/III/IV Adult NHL

Optimal treatment of advanced stages of low-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is controversial because of low cure rates with the current therapeutic options. Numerous clinical trials are in progress to settle treatment issues, and patients are urged to participate. The rate of relapse is fairly constant over time, even in patients who have achieved complete response to treatment. Indeed, relapse may occur many years after treatment. Currently, no randomized trials provide guidance to clinicians about the initial choice of watchful waiting, rituximab, nucleoside analogs, alkylating agents, combination chemotherapy, radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies, or combinations of these options.[ 1 ]; [ 2 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]

For patients with indolent, noncontiguous stage II and stage III NHL, central lymphatic radiation therapy has been proposed but is not usually recommended as a form of treatment.[ 3 ][ 4 ]

Standard Treatment Options for Indolent, Noncontiguous Stage II/III/IV Adult NHL

Standard treatment options for indolent, noncontiguous stage II/III/IV adult NHL include the following:

  1. Watchful waiting for asymptomatic patients.
  2. Rituximab with or without chemotherapy.
  3. Maintenance rituximab.
  4. Obinutuzumab.
  5. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitors.
  6. Lenalidomide and rituximab.
  7. Radiolabeled anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies.

Watchful waiting for asymptomatic patients

The rate of relapse is fairly constant over time, even in patients who have achieved complete responses (CR) to treatment. Indeed, relapse may occur many years after treatment. In this category, deferred treatment (i.e., watchful waiting until the patient becomes symptomatic before initiating treatment) can be considered.[ 2 ][ 5 ][ 6 ][ 7 ] The Follicular Lymphoma International Prognostic Index (FLIPI) and the revised FLIPI-2 can predict progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS), but the scores cannot be used to establish the need for therapy in asymptomatic patients.[ 8 ][ 9 ]

Evidence (watchful waiting):

  1. Three randomized trials compared watchful waiting with immediate chemotherapy.[ 6 ][ 10 ]; [ 11 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
  2. A selected group of 107 patients with advanced-stage follicular lymphoma were managed with initial watchful waiting; with a median delay of 55 months, subsequent therapy resulted in equivalent freedom from treatment failure and OS compared with a similar cohort treated immediately with rituximab.[ 12 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiii] This implies that watchful waiting remains a relevant approach even in the rituximab era.

Rituximab with or without chemotherapy

Standard therapy includes rituximab, an anti–CD20 monoclonal antibody, either alone, as was shown in the ECOG-E4402 (NCT00075946) trial,[ 13 ][ 14 ][ 15 ][ 16 ][ 17 ] or in combination with purine nucleoside analogs, such as fludarabine or 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine, alkylating agents (with or without steroids), or combination chemotherapy. Rituximab may be considered as first-line therapy, either alone or in combination with other agents. Rituximab may be given intravenously or subcutaneously, and biosimilar versions, such as CT-P10 and GP2013, have shown equivalent efficacy and safety.[ 18 ][ 19 ][ 20 ] Combinations include the following:

Evidence (rituximab with or without chemotherapy):

  1. A prospective, randomized trial of 534 patients with previously untreated, advanced-stage follicular lymphoma compared R-CHOP, R-FM, and R-CVP.[ 27 ]
  2. Four randomized prospective studies of previously untreated patients (involving more than 1,300 patients) and one Cochrane meta-analysis that included both untreated and previously treated patients (involving almost 1,000 patients) have compared rituximab plus combination chemotherapy with chemotherapy alone.[ 26 ][ 31 ][ 35 ]; [ 36 ][ 37 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
  3. In a prospective randomized trial, NCT00991211, 527 patients with indolent and mantle cell lymphoma were randomly assigned to a bendamustine-and-rituximab arm versus an R-CHOP arm.[ 22 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
  4. In a similar prospective randomized trial, 447 patients with indolent and mantle cell lymphoma were assigned to bendamustine and rituximab versus R-CHOP or R-CVP.[ 23 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]

Lenalidomide and rituximab

The combination of the immunomodulating agent lenalidomide with rituximab (the so-called R2 regimen) has been proposed as an alternative regimen to combinations involving cytotoxic agents and their subsequent short- and long-term toxicities.

Evidence (lenalidomide and rituximab):

  1. In a randomized prospective trial of 1,030 patients with previously untreated follicular lymphoma, rituximab plus lenalidomide for 18 months was compared with rituximab plus chemotherapy (usually R-CHOP).[ 40 ] All patients received rituximab maintenance for up to 2 years.

    This trial established that the R2 regimen is equally efficacious to rituximab plus cytotoxic chemotherapy options; analysis of long-term toxicities must await longer follow-up.

  2. In a randomized prospective trial of 358 patients with resistant/refractory indolent lymphoma (usually follicular lymphoma), rituximab plus lenalidomide (R2 regimen) was compared with rituximab alone.[ 41 ]

Maintenance rituximab

After induction therapy with rituximab only or with rituximab plus chemotherapy, rituximab can be used once every 2 to 3 months. Several studies have evaluated this approach.

Evidence (maintenance rituximab for previously untreated patients):

  1. In the PRIMA (NCT00140582) study, 1,018 high-risk, previously untreated, symptomatic patients achieved CR or partial response (PR) after induction therapy with immunochemotherapy (usually R-CHOP) and were then randomly assigned to 2 years of maintenance rituximab versus no maintenance.[ 42 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
  2. In the United Kingdom/International Study (NCT00112931), 379 previously untreated patients with asymptomatic, low-burden disease were randomly assigned to watchful waiting versus rituximab induction only versus rituximab induction followed by 2 years of rituximab maintenance.[ 43 ][Level of evidence: 1iiC]
  3. In the RESORT (NCT00075946) study, 289 previously untreated patients with asymptomatic, low-burden disease were randomly assigned to rituximab induction alone, with a re-treatment strategy that used rituximab at relapse, or rituximab induction plus maintenance rituximab every 13 weeks until treatment failure.[ 16 ][Level of evidence: 1iiC]

    These three randomized trials in previously untreated patients show no advantage for the use of rituximab maintenance versus observation and reinduction of therapy at the time of relapse. The trials suggest a benefit for maintenance rituximab after reinduction for relapsed disease. Many questions remain about rituximab maintenance, particularly about truncating therapy at 2 years and long-term safety and efficacy. A trial extending rituximab maintenance to 5 years showed similar EFS or OS versus 1 year of maintenance after induction therapy with rituximab in previously untreated patients.[ 45 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

  4. In a trial that studied the use of induction without rituximab (cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone), 387 patients were randomly assigned to receive 2 years of rituximab maintenance.[ 46 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]

For previously untreated patients, all of the studies showed improvement of PFS, with no change in OS.

Evidence (maintenance rituximab for previously treated patients):

  1. In a prospective randomized trial of 465 patients with relapsed follicular lymphoma, responders to R-CHOP or CHOP were further randomly assigned to receive rituximab maintenance (1 dose every 3 months for 2 years) or no maintenance.[ 47 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
  2. In a prospective randomized trial of 280 patients with relapsed follicular lymphoma, responders to chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation consolidation were randomly assigned to receive four doses of rituximab maintenance or no maintenance.[ 48 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]
  3. A meta-analysis of nine randomized clinical trials with a total of 2,586 patients with follicular lymphoma, most of whom had relapsed disease, compared rituximab maintenance with no maintenance and showed improved OS for rituximab maintenance in previously treated patients (HRdeath, 0.72; 95% CI, 0.57–0.91).[ 49 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

For previously treated patients, there is more evidence to suggest an OS advantage with the use of rituximab maintenance.

Obinutuzumab

Obinutuzumab is a glycoengineered type II anti–CD20 monoclonal antibody with greater antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity than rituximab.

Evidence (obinutuzumab):

  1. A prospective randomized trial (NCT01332968) of 1,202 patients with previously untreated follicular lymphoma compared obinutuzumab combined with bendamustine (50%), cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone (CHOP) (33%), or cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone (CVP) (10%) with rituximab combined with the same chemotherapy regimens (based on investigator choice).[ 50 ] After six cycles of combination therapy, patients had 2 years of maintenance therapy, receiving the same antibody every 2 months.

    Several issues have been raised about this study:

    In summary, in the absence of any change in OS, switching from rituximab to obinutuzumab in combination with chemotherapy for previously untreated follicular lymphoma is a difficult choice. The PFS differences may be attributable to the imbalance in monoclonal antibody dosing, and the increased side effects and costs are mitigating factors. In this trial, bendamustine combined with either antibody led to unacceptable rates of toxic death.

PI3K inhibitors

Copanlisib

Evidence (copanlisib):

  1. A phase II study included 142 patients with relapsed and refractory indolent lymphoma.[ 51 ]

Idelalisib

Evidence (idelalisib):

  1. A phase II study included 125 patients with relapsed and refractory indolent lymphoma.[ 52 ]

Duvelisib

Evidence (duvelisib):

  1. A phase II study included 129 patients with relapsed and refractory indolent lymphoma.[ 54 ]

The PI3K inhibitors have significant adverse effects including pneumonitis, colitis, transaminitis, hypertension, hyperglycemia, rash, and increased risk of infections. These adverse events have affected the use of these agents upfront until confirmatory trials can establish their added efficacy in combinations. They are currently approved for treatment of relapsed and refractory follicular lymphoma after two previously received lines of therapy.

Radiolabeled anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies

Yttrium Y 90 (90Y)-ibritumomab tiuxetan (Zevalin) is available for previously untreated and relapsing patients with minimal (<25%) or no marrow involvement with lymphoma (iodine I 131 [131I]-tositumomab (Bexxar) is no longer available because of commercial disengagement).[ 55 ][ 56 ]

Evidence (radiolabeled anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies):

  1. In a randomized, prospective trial, 554 patients with previously untreated advanced-stage follicular lymphoma received either R-CHOP times six cycles or CHOP times six cycles followed by 131I-tositumomab radioimmunotherapy (RIT).[ 57 ]

    131I-tositumomab became commercially unavailable in 2013.

  2. In a randomized trial of 409 patients with stage III or IV follicular lymphoma who achieved a CR or PR, 90Y-ibritumomab tiuxetan consolidation versus no consolidation was evaluated.[ 58 ]

Durable responses to radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies, such as 90Y-ibritumomab tiuxetan (commercially available) and iodine I 131-tositumomab (commercially unavailable), have also been reported before and after cytotoxic chemotherapy.[ 57 ][ 59 ][ 60 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii] However, the cumulative incidence of death resulting from myelodysplastic syndrome or acute myeloid leukemia is higher (4% vs. 1%; P = .02) in one of the randomized trials versus nonradiolabeled antibody with chemotherapy.[ 57 ]

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation for Indolent, Noncontiguous Stage II/III/IV Adult NHL

Because none of the standard therapies listed above are curative for advanced-stage disease, innovative approaches are under clinical evaluation. The approaches include intensive therapy with chemotherapy and total-body irradiation (TBI) followed by autologous or allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) or peripheral stem cell transplantation (SCT), and the use of idiotype vaccines and radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies.

  1. Intensive therapy with chemotherapy with or without TBI or high-dose radioimmunotherapy followed by autologous or allogeneic BMT or peripheral SCT is under clinical evaluation.[ 61 ][ 62 ][ 63 ][ 64 ][ 65 ][ 66 ][ 67 ][ 68 ][ 69 ][ 70 ]
  2. Phase III trials comparing chemotherapy alone versus chemotherapy followed by anti-idiotype vaccine.[ 71 ][ 72 ][ 73 ]
  3. Extended-field radiation therapy (stage III patients only).[ 74 ]
  4. Ofatumumab—human anti–CD20 monoclonal antibody.[ 75 ]
  5. Short-course low-dose, palliative radiation therapy (2 × 2 Gy).[ 76 ][ 77 ]

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.

参考文献
  1. Hagenbeek A, Eghbali H, Monfardini S, et al.: Phase III intergroup study of fludarabine phosphate compared with cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone chemotherapy in newly diagnosed patients with stage III and IV low-grade malignant Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 24 (10): 1590-6, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Gribben JG: How I treat indolent lymphoma. Blood 109 (11): 4617-26, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Jacobs JP, Murray KJ, Schultz CJ, et al.: Central lymphatic irradiation for stage III nodular malignant lymphoma: long-term results. J Clin Oncol 11 (2): 233-8, 1993.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Mendenhall NP, Million RR: Comprehensive lymphatic irradiation for stage II-III non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Am J Clin Oncol 12 (3): 190-4, 1989.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Eek R, Falkson G: The low-grade lymphoproliferative disorders. Oncology 54 (6): 441-58, 1997 Nov-Dec.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  21. Robinson KS, Williams ME, van der Jagt RH, et al.: Phase II multicenter study of bendamustine plus rituximab in patients with relapsed indolent B-cell and mantle cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 26 (27): 4473-9, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  22. Rummel MJ, Niederle N, Maschmeyer G, et al.: Bendamustine plus rituximab versus CHOP plus rituximab as first-line treatment for patients with indolent and mantle-cell lymphomas: an open-label, multicentre, randomised, phase 3 non-inferiority trial. Lancet 381 (9873): 1203-10, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  23. Flinn IW, van der Jagt R, Kahl B, et al.: First-Line Treatment of Patients With Indolent Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma or Mantle-Cell Lymphoma With Bendamustine Plus Rituximab Versus R-CHOP or R-CVP: Results of the BRIGHT 5-Year Follow-Up Study. J Clin Oncol 37 (12): 984-991, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  24. Czuczman MS, Koryzna A, Mohr A, et al.: Rituximab in combination with fludarabine chemotherapy in low-grade or follicular lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 23 (4): 694-704, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  25. Marcus R, Imrie K, Belch A, et al.: CVP chemotherapy plus rituximab compared with CVP as first-line treatment for advanced follicular lymphoma. Blood 105 (4): 1417-23, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  26. Marcus R, Imrie K, Solal-Celigny P, et al.: Phase III study of R-CVP compared with cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone alone in patients with previously untreated advanced follicular lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 26 (28): 4579-86, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  27. Federico M, Luminari S, Dondi A, et al.: R-CVP versus R-CHOP versus R-FM for the initial treatment of patients with advanced-stage follicular lymphoma: results of the FOLL05 trial conducted by the Fondazione Italiana Linfomi. J Clin Oncol 31 (12): 1506-13, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  28. Luminari S, Ferrari A, Manni M, et al.: Long-Term Results of the FOLL05 Trial Comparing R-CVP Versus R-CHOP Versus R-FM for the Initial Treatment of Patients With Advanced-Stage Symptomatic Follicular Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 36 (7): 689-696, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  29. Czuczman MS, Weaver R, Alkuzweny B, et al.: Prolonged clinical and molecular remission in patients with low-grade or follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma treated with rituximab plus CHOP chemotherapy: 9-year follow-up. J Clin Oncol 22 (23): 4711-6, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  30. Hainsworth JD, Litchy S, Morrissey LH, et al.: Rituximab plus short-duration chemotherapy as first-line treatment for follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a phase II trial of the Minnie Pearl Cancer Research Network. J Clin Oncol 23 (7): 1500-6, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  31. Hiddemann W, Kneba M, Dreyling M, et al.: Frontline therapy with rituximab added to the combination of cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone (CHOP) significantly improves the outcome for patients with advanced-stage follicular lymphoma compared with therapy with CHOP alone: results of a prospective randomized study of the German Low-Grade Lymphoma Study Group. Blood 106 (12): 3725-32, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  32. Itchaki G, Gafter-Gvili A, Lahav M, et al.: Anthracycline-containing regimens for treatment of follicular lymphoma in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 7: CD008909, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  33. Zinzani PL, Pulsoni A, Perrotti A, et al.: Fludarabine plus mitoxantrone with and without rituximab versus CHOP with and without rituximab as front-line treatment for patients with follicular lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 22 (13): 2654-61, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  34. Forstpointner R, Dreyling M, Repp R, et al.: The addition of rituximab to a combination of fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, mitoxantrone (FCM) significantly increases the response rate and prolongs survival as compared with FCM alone in patients with relapsed and refractory follicular and mantle cell lymphomas: results of a prospective randomized study of the German Low-Grade Lymphoma Study Group. Blood 104 (10): 3064-71, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  35. Herold M, Haas A, Srock S, et al.: Rituximab added to first-line mitoxantrone, chlorambucil, and prednisolone chemotherapy followed by interferon maintenance prolongs survival in patients with advanced follicular lymphoma: an East German Study Group Hematology and Oncology Study. J Clin Oncol 25 (15): 1986-92, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
  36. Salles GA, Mounier N, de Guibert S, et al.: Rituximab combined with chemotherapy and interferon in follicular lymphoma patients: final analysis of the GELA-GOELAMS FL2000 study with a 5-year follow-up. [Abstract] Blood 110 (11): A-792, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
  37. Schulz H, Bohlius J, Skoetz N, et al.: Combined immunochemotherapy with rituximab improves overall survival in patients with follicular and mantle cell lymphoma: updated meta-analysis results. [Abstract] Blood 108 (11): A-2760, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  38. Dupuis J, Berriolo-Riedinger A, Julian A, et al.: Impact of [(18)F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography response evaluation in patients with high-tumor burden follicular lymphoma treated with immunochemotherapy: a prospective study from the Groupe d'Etudes des Lymphomes de l'Adulte and GOELAMS. J Clin Oncol 30 (35): 4317-22, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  39. Trotman J, Fournier M, Lamy T, et al.: Positron emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) after induction therapy is highly predictive of patient outcome in follicular lymphoma: analysis of PET-CT in a subset of PRIMA trial participants. J Clin Oncol 29 (23): 3194-200, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
  40. Morschhauser F, Fowler NH, Feugier P, et al.: Rituximab plus Lenalidomide in Advanced Untreated Follicular Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 379 (10): 934-947, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  41. Leonard JP, Trneny M, Izutsu K, et al.: AUGMENT: A Phase III Study of Lenalidomide Plus Rituximab Versus Placebo Plus Rituximab in Relapsed or Refractory Indolent Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 37 (14): 1188-1199, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  42. Bachy E, Seymour JF, Feugier P, et al.: Sustained Progression-Free Survival Benefit of Rituximab Maintenance in Patients With Follicular Lymphoma: Long-Term Results of the PRIMA Study. J Clin Oncol 37 (31): 2815-2824, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  43. Ardeshna KM, Qian W, Smith P, et al.: Rituximab versus a watch-and-wait approach in patients with advanced-stage, asymptomatic, non-bulky follicular lymphoma: an open-label randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol 15 (4): 424-35, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  44. Ansell SM: Follicular lymphoma: watch and wait is watch and worry. Lancet Oncol 15 (4): 368-9, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  45. Taverna C, Martinelli G, Hitz F, et al.: Rituximab Maintenance for a Maximum of 5 Years After Single-Agent Rituximab Induction in Follicular Lymphoma: Results of the Randomized Controlled Phase III Trial SAKK 35/03. J Clin Oncol 34 (5): 495-500, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
  46. Barta SK, Li H, Hochster HS, et al.: Randomized phase 3 study in low-grade lymphoma comparing maintenance anti-CD20 antibody with observation after induction therapy: A trial of the ECOG-ACRIN Cancer Research Group (E1496). Cancer 122 (19): 2996-3004, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
  47. van Oers MH, Tönnissen E, Van Glabbeke M, et al.: BCL-2/IgH polymerase chain reaction status at the end of induction treatment is not predictive for progression-free survival in relapsed/resistant follicular lymphoma: results of a prospective randomized EORTC 20981 phase III intergroup study. J Clin Oncol 28 (13): 2246-52, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  48. Pettengell R, Schmitz N, Gisselbrecht C, et al.: Rituximab purging and/or maintenance in patients undergoing autologous transplantation for relapsed follicular lymphoma: a prospective randomized trial from the lymphoma working party of the European group for blood and marrow transplantation. J Clin Oncol 31 (13): 1624-30, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  49. Vidal L, Gafter-Gvili A, Salles G, et al.: Rituximab maintenance for the treatment of patients with follicular lymphoma: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Natl Cancer Inst 103 (23): 1799-806, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
  50. Marcus R, Davies A, Ando K, et al.: Obinutuzumab for the First-Line Treatment of Follicular Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 377 (14): 1331-1344, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  51. Dreyling M, Santoro A, Mollica L, et al.: Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase Inhibition by Copanlisib in Relapsed or Refractory Indolent Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 35 (35): 3898-3905, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  52. Gopal AK, Kahl BS, de Vos S, et al.: PI3Kδ inhibition by idelalisib in patients with relapsed indolent lymphoma. N Engl J Med 370 (11): 1008-18, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  53. Gopal AK, Kahl BS, Flowers CR, et al.: Idelalisib is effective in patients with high-risk follicular lymphoma and early relapse after initial chemoimmunotherapy. Blood 129 (22): 3037-3039, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  54. Flinn IW, Miller CB, Ardeshna KM, et al.: DYNAMO: A Phase II Study of Duvelisib (IPI-145) in Patients With Refractory Indolent Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 37 (11): 912-922, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  55. Press OW, Unger JM, Braziel RM, et al.: Phase II trial of CHOP chemotherapy followed by tositumomab/iodine I-131 tositumomab for previously untreated follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: five-year follow-up of Southwest Oncology Group Protocol S9911. J Clin Oncol 24 (25): 4143-9, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  56. Scholz CW, Pinto A, Linkesch W, et al.: (90)Yttrium-ibritumomab-tiuxetan as first-line treatment for follicular lymphoma: 30 months of follow-up data from an international multicenter phase II clinical trial. J Clin Oncol 31 (3): 308-13, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  57. Shadman M, Li H, Rimsza L, et al.: Continued Excellent Outcomes in Previously Untreated Patients With Follicular Lymphoma After Treatment With CHOP Plus Rituximab or CHOP Plus 131I-Tositumomab: Long-Term Follow-Up of Phase III Randomized Study SWOG-S0016. J Clin Oncol 36 (7): 697-703, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  58. Morschhauser F, Radford J, Van Hoof A, et al.: 90Yttrium-ibritumomab tiuxetan consolidation of first remission in advanced-stage follicular non-Hodgkin lymphoma: updated results after a median follow-up of 7.3 years from the International, Randomized, Phase III First-LineIndolent trial. J Clin Oncol 31 (16): 1977-83, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  59. Fisher RI, Kaminski MS, Wahl RL, et al.: Tositumomab and iodine-131 tositumomab produces durable complete remissions in a subset of heavily pretreated patients with low-grade and transformed non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. J Clin Oncol 23 (30): 7565-73, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  60. Leahy MF, Seymour JF, Hicks RJ, et al.: Multicenter phase II clinical study of iodine-131-rituximab radioimmunotherapy in relapsed or refractory indolent non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 24 (27): 4418-25, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  61. van Besien K, Sobocinski KA, Rowlings PA, et al.: Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation for low-grade lymphoma. Blood 92 (5): 1832-6, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  62. van Besien K, Loberiza FR, Bajorunaite R, et al.: Comparison of autologous and allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for follicular lymphoma. Blood 102 (10): 3521-9, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  63. Deconinck E, Foussard C, Milpied N, et al.: High-dose therapy followed by autologous purged stem-cell transplantation and doxorubicin-based chemotherapy in patients with advanced follicular lymphoma: a randomized multicenter study by GOELAMS. Blood 105 (10): 3817-23, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  64. Sebban C, Mounier N, Brousse N, et al.: Standard chemotherapy with interferon compared with CHOP followed by high-dose therapy with autologous stem cell transplantation in untreated patients with advanced follicular lymphoma: the GELF-94 randomized study from the Groupe d'Etude des Lymphomes de l'Adulte (GELA). Blood 108 (8): 2540-4, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  65. Lenz G, Dreyling M, Schiegnitz E, et al.: Myeloablative radiochemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation in first remission prolongs progression-free survival in follicular lymphoma: results of a prospective, randomized trial of the German Low-Grade Lymphoma Study Group. Blood 104 (9): 2667-74, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  66. Rohatiner AZ, Nadler L, Davies AJ, et al.: Myeloablative therapy with autologous bone marrow transplantation for follicular lymphoma at the time of second or subsequent remission: long-term follow-up. J Clin Oncol 25 (18): 2554-9, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
  67. Gopal AK, Rajendran JG, Gooley TA, et al.: High-dose [131I]tositumomab (anti-CD20) radioimmunotherapy and autologous hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation for adults > or = 60 years old with relapsed or refractory B-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 25 (11): 1396-402, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
  68. Gyan E, Foussard C, Bertrand P, et al.: High-dose therapy followed by autologous purged stem cell transplantation and doxorubicin-based chemotherapy in patients with advanced follicular lymphoma: a randomized multicenter study by the GOELAMS with final results after a median follow-up of 9 years. Blood 113 (5): 995-1001, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
  69. Al Khabori M, de Almeida JR, Guyatt GH, et al.: Autologous stem cell transplantation in follicular lymphoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst 104 (1): 18-28, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  70. Schaaf M, Reiser M, Borchmann P, et al.: High-dose therapy with autologous stem cell transplantation versus chemotherapy or immuno-chemotherapy for follicular lymphoma in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1: CD007678, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  71. Bendandi M, Gocke CD, Kobrin CB, et al.: Complete molecular remissions induced by patient-specific vaccination plus granulocyte-monocyte colony-stimulating factor against lymphoma. Nat Med 5 (10): 1171-7, 1999.[PUBMED Abstract]
  72. Neelapu SS, Gause BL, Nikcevich DA, et al.: Phase III randomized trial of patient-specific vaccination for previously untreated patients with follicular lymphoma in first complete remission: protocol summary and interim report. Clin Lymphoma 6 (1): 61-4, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  73. Inogès S, Rodrìguez-Calvillo M, Zabalegui N, et al.: Clinical benefit associated with idiotypic vaccination in patients with follicular lymphoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 98 (18): 1292-301, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  74. Ha CS, Kong JS, Tucker SL, et al.: Central lymphatic irradiation for stage I-III follicular lymphoma: report from a single-institutional prospective study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 57 (2): 316-20, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  75. Czuczman MS, Fayad L, Delwail V, et al.: Ofatumumab monotherapy in rituximab-refractory follicular lymphoma: results from a multicenter study. Blood 119 (16): 3698-704, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  76. Chan EK, Fung S, Gospodarowicz M, et al.: Palliation by low-dose local radiation therapy for indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 81 (5): e781-6, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
  77. Rossier C, Schick U, Miralbell R, et al.: Low-dose radiotherapy in indolent lymphoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 81 (3): e1-6, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
Treatment for Indolent, Recurrent Adult NHL

In general, treatment with standard agents rarely produces a cure in patients whose disease has relapsed. Sustained remissions after relapse can often be obtained in patients with indolent lymphomas, but relapse will usually ensue. Favorable survival after relapse has been associated with an age younger than 60 years, complete remission rather than partial remission, and duration of response longer than 2 years.[ 1 ] Even the most favorable subset, however, has a tenfold greater mortality compared with age-adjusted U.S. population rates.[ 2 ]

Patients who experience a relapse with indolent lymphoma can often have their disease controlled with single agent or combination chemotherapy, rituximab (an anti–CD20 monoclonal antibody), lenalidomide, radiolabeled anti–CD20 monoclonal antibodies, or palliative radiation therapy.[ 3 ][ 4 ] Long-term freedom from second relapse, however, is uncommon and multiple relapses will usually occur. Patients with indolent lymphoma may experience a relapse with a more aggressive histology. If the clinical pattern of relapse suggests that the disease is behaving in a more aggressive manner, a biopsy can be performed. Documentation of conversion to a more aggressive histology requires an appropriate change to therapy applicable to that histologic type.[ 5 ] Rapid growth or discordant growth between various disease sites may indicate a histologic conversion.

In a retrospective review of 325 patients between 1972 and 1999, the risk of histologic transformation was 30% by 10 years from diagnosis.[ 6 ] In this series, high-risk factors for subsequent histologic transformation were advanced stage, high-risk Follicular Lymphoma International Prognostic Index, and expectant management. The median survival after transformation was 1 to 2 years, with 25% of patients alive at 5 years and with approximately 10% to 20% of patients alive 10 years after re-treatment.[ 7 ]

A prospective trial of 631 patients with follicular lymphoma and with a median follow-up of 60 months in the rituximab era (2002–2009) found a 5-year transformation rate (11%) to a higher-grade histology.[ 8 ] The median overall survival (OS) after transformation was 50 months, and the 5-year OS rate was 66%, if the transformation occurred more than 18 months after a diagnosis of follicular lymphoma. This series describes a better prognosis for patients with transformation than was experienced by patients in the prerituximab era.

(Refer to the Treatment for Aggressive, Recurrent Adult NHL section of this summary for descriptions of the regimens used to treat histologic conversions.) The durability of the second remission may be short, and clinical trials can be considered.

Standard Treatment Options for Indolent, Recurrent Adult NHL

Standard treatment options for indolent, recurrent adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) include the following:

  1. Chemotherapy (single agent or combination).
  2. Rituximab.
  3. Obinutuzumab.
  4. Lenalidomide.
  5. Radiolabeled anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies.
  6. Palliative radiation therapy.

Chemotherapy (single agent or combination)

Significant activity for fludarabine and 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine has been demonstrated in relapsed low-grade lymphomas, both as single agents and in combination with other drugs.[ 9 ][ 10 ][ 11 ][ 12 ][ 13 ][ 14 ] Patients may respond to the original induction regimen again, especially if the duration of remission exceeds 1 year. For relapsing patients, rituximab alone or in combination with agents not previously used may induce remissions.

Rituximab

Rituximab results in a 40% to 50% response rate in patients who relapse with indolent B-cell lymphomas.[ 15 ][ 16 ][ 17 ][ 18 ][ 19 ] Rituximab can also be combined with combination chemotherapy.[ 20 ][ 21 ]

Evidence (rituximab):

  1. In three randomized, prospective studies involving previously treated patients with relapsed indolent lymphoma, patients were randomly assigned to rituximab maintenance after re-treatment with combination chemotherapy (with or without rituximab during induction) or rituximab alone.[ 22 ][ 23 ][ 24 ]

Obinutuzumab

Obinutuzumab is a CD20-binding monoclonal antibody with alternative epitope binding.

Evidence (obinutuzumab):

  1. In a randomized prospective trial (NCT01059630) involving 396 patients with rituximab-refractory indolent lymphoma (mostly follicular lymphoma), patients received obinutuzumab plus bendamustine followed by obinutuzumab maintenance therapy for 2 years versus bendamustine alone with no maintenance therapy.[ 25 ][ 26 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA]

Lenalidomide

Responses of 20% to 56% have been reported for lenalidomide, especially in patients with follicular lymphoma and small lymphocytic lymphoma, with even higher responses noted for the combination of lenalidomide and rituximab.[ 27 ][ 28 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Radiolabeled anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies

Durable responses to radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies, such as yttrium Y 90 (90Y)-ibritumomab tiuxetan (commercially available) and iodine I 131-tositumomab (commercially unavailable), have also been reported before and after cytotoxic chemotherapy.[ 29 ][ 30 ][ 31 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii] However, the cumulative incidence of death resulting from myelodysplastic syndrome or acute myeloid leukemia is higher (4% vs. 1%; P = .02) in one of the randomized trials versus nonradiolabeled antibody with chemotherapy.[ 31 ]

Evidence (radiolabeled anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies):

  1. In a prospective trial of 409 patients with follicular lymphoma who responded to induction chemotherapy, patients were randomly assigned to 90Y-ibritumomab tiuxetan or no further consolidation.[ 32 ]

Palliative radiation therapy

Palliation may be achieved with very low-dose (4 Gy) involved-field radiation therapy in two fractions for patients with indolent and aggressive relapsed disease.[ 33 ] In a prospective randomized trial, treatment with 4 Gy was inferior to treatment with 24 Gy in 12 fractions in PFS (77% vs. 92%, P < .0001).[ 34 ][Level of evidence: 1iiDiii]

Hepatitis B

Patients with a resolved hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection (HBsAg negative + HBcAb positive) are at risk of reactivation of HBV and require monitoring of HBV DNA. Prophylactic nucleoside therapy lowered HBV reactivation from 10.8% to 2.1% in a retrospective study of 326 patients.[ 35 ]

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation for Indolent, Recurrent Adult NHL

Treatment options under clinical evaluation include the following:

Evidence (stem cell transplant):

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.

参考文献
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  2. Weisdorf DJ, Andersen JW, Glick JH, et al.: Survival after relapse of low-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: implications for marrow transplantation. J Clin Oncol 10 (6): 942-7, 1992.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Peterson BA: Current treatment of follicular low-grade lymphomas. Semin Oncol 26 (5 Suppl 14): 2-11, 1999.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Haas RL, Poortmans P, de Jong D, et al.: High response rates and lasting remissions after low-dose involved field radiotherapy in indolent lymphomas. J Clin Oncol 21 (13): 2474-80, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Tsimberidou AM, O'Brien S, Khouri I, et al.: Clinical outcomes and prognostic factors in patients with Richter's syndrome treated with chemotherapy or chemoimmunotherapy with or without stem-cell transplantation. J Clin Oncol 24 (15): 2343-51, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Montoto S, Davies AJ, Matthews J, et al.: Risk and clinical implications of transformation of follicular lymphoma to diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 25 (17): 2426-33, 2007.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Yuen AR, Kamel OW, Halpern J, et al.: Long-term survival after histologic transformation of low-grade follicular lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 13 (7): 1726-33, 1995.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Link BK, Maurer MJ, Nowakowski GS, et al.: Rates and outcomes of follicular lymphoma transformation in the immunochemotherapy era: a report from the University of Iowa/MayoClinic Specialized Program of Research Excellence Molecular Epidemiology Resource. J Clin Oncol 31 (26): 3272-8, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Hochster HS, Kim KM, Green MD, et al.: Activity of fludarabine in previously treated non-Hodgkin's low-grade lymphoma: results of an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol 10 (1): 28-32, 1992.[PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Kay AC, Saven A, Carrera CJ, et al.: 2-Chlorodeoxyadenosine treatment of low-grade lymphomas. J Clin Oncol 10 (3): 371-7, 1992.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  12. Tsimberidou AM, McLaughlin P, Younes A, et al.: Fludarabine, mitoxantrone, dexamethasone (FND) compared with an alternating triple therapy (ATT) regimen in patients with stage IV indolent lymphoma. Blood 100 (13): 4351-7, 2002.[PUBMED Abstract]
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  14. Klasa RJ, Meyer RM, Shustik C, et al.: Randomized phase III study of fludarabine phosphate versus cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone in patients with recurrent low-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphoma previously treated with an alkylating agent or alkylator-containing regimen. J Clin Oncol 20 (24): 4649-54, 2002.[PUBMED Abstract]
  15. Davis TA, White CA, Grillo-López AJ, et al.: Single-agent monoclonal antibody efficacy in bulky non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: results of a phase II trial of rituximab. J Clin Oncol 17 (6): 1851-7, 1999.[PUBMED Abstract]
  16. Piro LD, White CA, Grillo-López AJ, et al.: Extended Rituximab (anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody) therapy for relapsed or refractory low-grade or follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Ann Oncol 10 (6): 655-61, 1999.[PUBMED Abstract]
  17. Davis TA, Grillo-López AJ, White CA, et al.: Rituximab anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody therapy in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: safety and efficacy of re-treatment. J Clin Oncol 18 (17): 3135-43, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
  18. Hainsworth JD, Litchy S, Shaffer DW, et al.: Maximizing therapeutic benefit of rituximab: maintenance therapy versus re-treatment at progression in patients with indolent non-Hodgkin's lymphoma--a randomized phase II trial of the Minnie Pearl Cancer Research Network. J Clin Oncol 23 (6): 1088-95, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  19. Lockmer S, Østenstad B, Hagberg H, et al.: Chemotherapy-Free Initial Treatment of Advanced Indolent Lymphoma Has Durable Effect With Low Toxicity: Results From Two Nordic Lymphoma Group Trials With More Than 10 Years of Follow-Up. J Clin Oncol : JCO1800262, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  20. Forstpointner R, Dreyling M, Repp R, et al.: The addition of rituximab to a combination of fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, mitoxantrone (FCM) significantly increases the response rate and prolongs survival as compared with FCM alone in patients with relapsed and refractory follicular and mantle cell lymphomas: results of a prospective randomized study of the German Low-Grade Lymphoma Study Group. Blood 104 (10): 3064-71, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  21. Canellos GP: CHOP may have been part of the beginning but certainly not the end: issues in risk-related therapy of large-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 15 (5): 1713-6, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  22. van Oers MH, Van Glabbeke M, Giurgea L, et al.: Rituximab maintenance treatment of relapsed/resistant follicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: long-term outcome of the EORTC 20981 phase III randomized intergroup study. J Clin Oncol 28 (17): 2853-8, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  23. van Oers MH, Klasa R, Marcus RE, et al.: Rituximab maintenance improves clinical outcome of relapsed/resistant follicular non-Hodgkin lymphoma in patients both with and without rituximab during induction: results of a prospective randomized phase 3 intergroup trial. Blood 108 (10): 3295-301, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  24. Martinelli G, Schmitz SF, Utiger U, et al.: Long-term follow-up of patients with follicular lymphoma receiving single-agent rituximab at two different schedules in trial SAKK 35/98. J Clin Oncol 28 (29): 4480-4, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  25. Sehn LH, Chua N, Mayer J, et al.: Obinutuzumab plus bendamustine versus bendamustine monotherapy in patients with rituximab-refractory indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma (GADOLIN): a randomised, controlled, open-label, multicentre, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol 17 (8): 1081-93, 2016.[PUBMED Abstract]
  26. Cheson BD, Chua N, Mayer J, et al.: Overall Survival Benefit in Patients With Rituximab-Refractory Indolent Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Who Received Obinutuzumab Plus Bendamustine Induction and Obinutuzumab Maintenance in the GADOLIN Study. J Clin Oncol 36 (22): 2259-2266, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  27. Witzig TE, Wiernik PH, Moore T, et al.: Lenalidomide oral monotherapy produces durable responses in relapsed or refractory indolent non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 27 (32): 5404-9, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
  28. Leonard JP, Jung SH, Johnson J, et al.: Randomized Trial of Lenalidomide Alone Versus Lenalidomide Plus Rituximab in Patients With Recurrent Follicular Lymphoma: CALGB 50401 (Alliance). J Clin Oncol 33 (31): 3635-40, 2015.[PUBMED Abstract]
  29. Fisher RI, Kaminski MS, Wahl RL, et al.: Tositumomab and iodine-131 tositumomab produces durable complete remissions in a subset of heavily pretreated patients with low-grade and transformed non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. J Clin Oncol 23 (30): 7565-73, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  30. Leahy MF, Seymour JF, Hicks RJ, et al.: Multicenter phase II clinical study of iodine-131-rituximab radioimmunotherapy in relapsed or refractory indolent non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 24 (27): 4418-25, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  31. Shadman M, Li H, Rimsza L, et al.: Continued Excellent Outcomes in Previously Untreated Patients With Follicular Lymphoma After Treatment With CHOP Plus Rituximab or CHOP Plus 131I-Tositumomab: Long-Term Follow-Up of Phase III Randomized Study SWOG-S0016. J Clin Oncol 36 (7): 697-703, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  32. Morschhauser F, Radford J, Van Hoof A, et al.: 90Yttrium-ibritumomab tiuxetan consolidation of first remission in advanced-stage follicular non-Hodgkin lymphoma: updated results after a median follow-up of 7.3 years from the International, Randomized, Phase III First-LineIndolent trial. J Clin Oncol 31 (16): 1977-83, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  33. Haas RL, Poortmans P, de Jong D, et al.: Effective palliation by low dose local radiotherapy for recurrent and/or chemotherapy refractory non-follicular lymphoma patients. Eur J Cancer 41 (12): 1724-30, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  34. Hoskin PJ, Kirkwood AA, Popova B, et al.: 4 Gy versus 24 Gy radiotherapy for patients with indolent lymphoma (FORT): a randomised phase 3 non-inferiority trial. Lancet Oncol 15 (4): 457-63, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  35. Kusumoto S, Arcaini L, Hong X, et al.: Risk of HBV reactivation in patients with B-cell lymphomas receiving obinutuzumab or rituximab immunochemotherapy. Blood 133 (2): 137-146, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  36. Freedman A, Friedberg JW, Gribben J: High-dose therapy for follicular lymphoma. Oncology (Huntingt) 14 (3): 321-6, 329; discussion 330-2, 338, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
  37. Brice P, Simon D, Bouabdallah R, et al.: High-dose therapy with autologous stem-cell transplantation (ASCT) after first progression prolonged survival of follicular lymphoma patients included in the prospective GELF 86 protocol. Ann Oncol 11 (12): 1585-90, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
  38. Khouri IF, McLaughlin P, Saliba RM, et al.: Eight-year experience with allogeneic stem cell transplantation for relapsed follicular lymphoma after nonmyeloablative conditioning with fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab. Blood 111 (12): 5530-6, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  39. Sebban C, Brice P, Delarue R, et al.: Impact of rituximab and/or high-dose therapy with autotransplant at time of relapse in patients with follicular lymphoma: a GELA study. J Clin Oncol 26 (21): 3614-20, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  40. Thomson KJ, Morris EC, Milligan D, et al.: T-cell-depleted reduced-intensity transplantation followed by donor leukocyte infusions to promote graft-versus-lymphoma activity results in excellent long-term survival in patients with multiply relapsed follicular lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 28 (23): 3695-700, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  41. Lenz G, Dreyling M, Schiegnitz E, et al.: Myeloablative radiochemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation in first remission prolongs progression-free survival in follicular lymphoma: results of a prospective, randomized trial of the German Low-Grade Lymphoma Study Group. Blood 104 (9): 2667-74, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
Treatment for Aggressive Stage I and Aggressive, Contiguous Stage II Adult NHL

Patients with aggressive stage I or aggressive, contiguous stage II diffuse large B-cell lymphoma are candidates for combination chemotherapy with or without involved-field radiation therapy (IF-XRT).

Standard Treatment Options for Aggressive Stage I and Aggressive, Contiguous Stage II Adult NHL

Standard treatment options for aggressive stage I and aggressive, contiguous stage II adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) include the following:

  1. R-CHOP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone) with or without IF-XRT.

R-CHOP with or without IF-XRT

The confirmation of efficacy for rituximab in advanced-stage disease has suggested the use of R-CHOP with or without radiation therapy but its use is only supported by retrospective comparisons.[ 1 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiii]

Evidence (R-CHOP with or without IF-XRT):

  1. In a randomized prospective trial of 334 patients with nonbulky (≤7 cm) stage I or stage II diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), after receiving four to six cycles of R-CHOP-14 (R-CHOP delivered every 2 weeks), patients were randomly assigned to receive or not receive 40 Gy of radiation therapy.[ 2 ]

    Similar to the results of randomized studies of radiation therapy in the prerituximab era, radiation therapy can be deferred in nonbulky early-stage patients. For patients unable to tolerate prolonged-course chemotherapy, three cycles of R-CHOP plus radiation therapy has produced equivalent results based on single-arm retrospective trials.[ 1 ]

  2. In a randomized prospective trial, published only in abstract form, of 592 patients younger than 60 years with nonbulky (<7.5 cm) stage I or stage II DLBCL, patients were randomly assigned to four versus six cycles of R-CHOP.[ 3 ]

Conclusion: For patients with favorable prognosis nonbulky (<7 cm) stage I or stage II DLBCL, four cycles of R-CHOP is sufficient. For patients with unfavorable prognosis, six cycles of R-CHOP or three cycles of R-CHOP and 40 Gy of radiation therapy can be utilized. Early-stage patients with bulky disease (>7.5 cm) have not been studied in randomized trials; combined modality therapy with R-CHOP for four to six cycles plus radiation therapy is usually chosen.

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation for Aggressive Stage I and Aggressive, Contiguous Stage II Adult NHL

Treatment options under clinical evaluation include the following:

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.

参考文献
  1. Persky DO, Unger JM, Spier CM, et al.: Phase II study of rituximab plus three cycles of CHOP and involved-field radiotherapy for patients with limited-stage aggressive B-cell lymphoma: Southwest Oncology Group study 0014. J Clin Oncol 26 (14): 2258-63, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Lamy T, Damaj G, Soubeyran P, et al.: R-CHOP 14 with or without radiotherapy in nonbulky limited-stage diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Blood 131 (2): 174-181, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Poeschel V, Held G, Ziepert M, et al.: Excellent outcome of young patients (18–60 years) with favourable-prognosis diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) treated with 4 cycles CHOP plus 6 applications of rituximab: results of the 592 patients of the flyer trial of the Dshnhl/GLA. [Abstract] Blood 132 (Suppl 1): A-781, 2018. Also available online. Last accessed April 30, 2020.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Reyes F, Lepage E, Ganem G, et al.: ACVBP versus CHOP plus radiotherapy for localized aggressive lymphoma. N Engl J Med 352 (12): 1197-205, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Ketterer N, Coiffier B, Thieblemont C, et al.: Phase III study of ACVBP versus ACVBP plus rituximab for patients with localized low-risk diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (LNH03-1B). Ann Oncol 24 (4): 1032-7, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
Treatment for Aggressive, Noncontiguous Stage II/III/IV Adult NHL

The treatment of choice for patients with advanced stages of aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is combination chemotherapy, either alone or supplemented by local-field radiation therapy.[ 1 ]

Standard Treatment Options for Aggressive, Noncontiguous Stage II/III/IV Adult NHL

Standard treatment options for aggressive, noncontiguous stage II/III/IV adult NHL include the following:

  1. R-CHOP.
  2. Other combination chemotherapy.

R-CHOP

The following studies established R-CHOP as the standard regimen for newly diagnosed patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL).[ 2 ] Dose intensification of R-CHOP by a 14-day versus a 21-day cycle did not result in improved outcomes.[ 3 ]

Evidence (R-CHOP):

  1. R-CHOP showed improvement in event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) compared with CHOP alone in 399 advanced-stage patients with DLBCL older than 60 years (EFS, 57% vs. 38%; P = .002, and OS, 70% vs. 57%; P = .007 at 2 years).[ 4 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA] At 10-years' median follow-up, the OS of patients who received R-CHOP compared with patients who received CHOP was 44% versus 28%, P < .0001.[ 5 ]
  2. Similarly, for 326 evaluable patients younger than 61 years, R-CHOP showed improvement in EFS and OS compared with CHOP alone (EFS, 79% vs. 59%, P = .001, and OS, 93% vs. 84%, P = .001 at 3 years).[ 6 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA]
  3. A randomized study (DSHNHL-1999-1A [NCT00052936]) of 1,222 patients older than 60 years compared R-CHOP given every 2 weeks for six or eight cycles with CHOP given every 2 weeks for six or eight cycles.[ 7 ] With a median follow-up of 72 months, the EFS favored R-CHOP given every 2 weeks for six or eight cycles (EFS at 6 years, 74% vs. 56%; P < .0001). The OS favored R-CHOP for only six cycles because of increased toxicity in the eight-cycle arm (OS at 6 years, 90% vs. 80%; P = .0004).[ 7 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA] There was no comparison with standard R-CHOP or CHOP given every 3 weeks.
  4. A trial (NCT00140595) of 380 patients younger than 60 years with DLBCL and an age-adjusted International Prognostic Index (IPI) rating of 1 randomly assigned treatment of patients to ACVBP and R-ACVBP plus consolidation with methotrexate, ifosfamide, etoposide, and cytarabine versus CHOP and rituximab.[ 8 ] With a median follow-up of 44 months, 3-year OS favored R-ACVBP (92% vs. 84%; hazard ratio, 0.44; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.28–0.81, P = .007).[ 8 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA] The significantly worse toxicities with R-ACVBP, the narrow target population (<60 years with either elevated lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) or stage III-stage IV disease, but not both), and the lack of a confirmatory trial may inhibit adoption of R-ACVBP as a new standard of care.[ 9 ]

Clinical trials continue to explore modifications of R-CHOP. There is no validated trial for interim positron emission tomography–based treatment intensification.[ 10 ] R-CHOP has curative potential even in patients older than 80 years who are frail and require reduced dosage of R-CHOP components. In a retrospective review of 239 patients, the 5-year cause-specific survival rate was 48% (95% CI, 41%−55%).[ 11 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Less than 10% of patients with DLBCL present with a concurrent indolent lymphoma at diagnosis, and these are predominantly of germinal-center phenotype. A retrospective review of 1,324 patients showed similar EFS (HR, 1.19) and OS (HR, 1.09).[ 12 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Stage IE or IIE gastric DLBCL

Four case series involving more than 100 patients with stage IE or IIE disease (with or without associated mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue) and with positive Helicobacter pylori infection reported that more than 50% of patients attained a durable complete remission after appropriate antibiotic therapy to eradicate H. pylori.[ 13 ][ 14 ][ 15 ][ 16 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Prognostic factors

The National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) IPI for aggressive NHL (diffuse large cell lymphoma) identifies five significant risk factors prognostic of OS:[ 17 ]

Risk scores:

Age-adjusted and stage-adjusted modifications of this IPI are used for younger patients with localized disease.[ 18 ] Shorter intervals of time between diagnosis and treatment appear to be a surrogate for poor prognostic biologic factors.[ 19 ]

The BCL2 gene and rearrangement of the MYC gene or dual overexpression of the MYC gene, or both, confer a particularly poor prognosis.[ 20 ][ 21 ][ 22 ][ 23 ] Patients at high risk of relapse may be considered for clinical trials.[ 24 ] Molecular profiles of gene expression using DNA microarrays may help to stratify patients in the future for therapies directed at specific targets and to better predict survival after standard chemotherapy.[ 25 ]

Treatment of tumor lysis syndrome

Patients with bulky and extensive lymphadenopathy and elevations of serum uric acid and LDH are at increased risk of tumor lysis syndrome resulting in metabolic derangements such as hyperuricemia, hyperkalemia, hyperphosphatemia, hypocalcemia, and subsequent acute renal failure.[ 26 ] Treatment options include: alkaline hydration, allopurinol, and rasburicase, a recombinant urate oxidase.[ 27 ]

CNS prophylaxis

Central nervous system (CNS) prophylaxis (usually with four to six injections of methotrexate intrathecally) is recommended for patients with paranasal sinus or testicular involvement. Some clinicians are employing high-dose intravenous methotrexate (usually four doses) as an alternative to intrathecal therapy because drug delivery is improved and patient morbidity is decreased.[ 28 ] CNS prophylaxis for bone marrow involvement is controversial; some investigators recommend it, and others do not.[ 29 ][ 30 ]

Evidence (CNS prophylaxis):

  1. A retrospective analysis of 605 patients with diffuse large cell lymphoma who did not receive prophylactic intrathecal therapy identified an elevated serum LDH and more than one extranodal site as independent risk factors for CNS recurrence.[ 31 ]

Patients with diffuse, small, noncleaved-cell/Burkitt's lymphoma or lymphoblastic lymphoma have a 20% to 30% lifetime risk of CNS involvement. CNS prophylaxis is recommended for these histologies.

Hepatitis B

Patients with a resolved hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection (HBsAg negative + HBcAb positive) are at risk of reactivation of HBV and require monitoring of HBV DNA. Prophylactic nucleoside therapy lowered HBV reactivation from 10.8% to 2.1% in a retrospective study of 326 patients.[ 32 ]

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation for Aggressive, Noncontiguous Stage II/III/IV Adult NHL

Treatment options under clinical evaluation include the following:

  1. Bone marrow transplant (BMT) or stem cell transplantation (SCT).

    Several randomized, prospective trials evaluated the role of autologous BMT or SCT consolidation versus chemotherapy alone in patients in first remission with diffuse large cell lymphoma.[ 33 ][ 34 ][ 35 ][ 36 ][ 37 ][ 38 ][ 39 ][ 40 ]; [ 41 ][ 42 ][ 43 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA] Although some of these trials demonstrated significant increases in EFS (by 10% to 20%) among patients who received high-dose therapy, significant differences in OS could not be demonstrated prospectively in any of the series.

    Retrospective analyses of high-intermediate (two risk factors) or high-risk (more than three risk factors) patients as defined by IPI suggest improved survival with BMT in two of the trials.[ 34 ][ 40 ] These studies do not establish that high-dose consolidation is of value to patients with aggressive lymphoma who are truly at high risk of relapse, and they also demonstrate that EFS may be a poor surrogate for OS for these patients.[ 44 ]

  2. Radiation therapy consolidation to sites of bulky disease.

    After R-CHOP induction chemotherapy (or similar regimens), the addition of IF-XRT to sites of initial bulky disease (≥5–10 cm) or to extralymphatic sites remains controversial.[ 45 ][ 46 ][ 47 ] Increased risks, such as long-term toxicities (e.g., second malignancies), must be considered.

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.

参考文献
  1. Shankland KR, Armitage JO, Hancock BW: Non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Lancet 380 (9844): 848-57, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Coiffier B: State-of-the-art therapeutics: diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 23 (26): 6387-93, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Cunningham D, Hawkes EA, Jack A, et al.: Rituximab plus cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisolone in patients with newly diagnosed diffuse large B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a phase 3 comparison of dose intensification with 14-day versus 21-day cycles. Lancet 381 (9880): 1817-26, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Coiffier B, Lepage E, Briere J, et al.: CHOP chemotherapy plus rituximab compared with CHOP alone in elderly patients with diffuse large-B-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 346 (4): 235-42, 2002.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Coiffier B, Thieblemont C, Van Den Neste E, et al.: Long-term outcome of patients in the LNH-98.5 trial, the first randomized study comparing rituximab-CHOP to standard CHOP chemotherapy in DLBCL patients: a study by the Groupe d'Etudes des Lymphomes de l'Adulte. Blood 116 (12): 2040-5, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Pfreundschuh M, Trümper L, Osterborg A, et al.: CHOP-like chemotherapy plus rituximab versus CHOP-like chemotherapy alone in young patients with good-prognosis diffuse large-B-cell lymphoma: a randomised controlled trial by the MabThera International Trial (MInT) Group. Lancet Oncol 7 (5): 379-91, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Pfreundschuh M, Kuhnt E, Trümper L, et al.: CHOP-like chemotherapy with or without rituximab in young patients with good-prognosis diffuse large-B-cell lymphoma: 6-year results of an open-label randomised study of the MabThera International Trial (MInT) Group. Lancet Oncol 12 (11): 1013-22, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Récher C, Coiffier B, Haioun C, et al.: Intensified chemotherapy with ACVBP plus rituximab versus standard CHOP plus rituximab for the treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (LNH03-2B): an open-label randomised phase 3 trial. Lancet 378 (9806): 1858-67, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Casasnovas RO, Ysebaert L, Thieblemont C, et al.: FDG-PET-driven consolidation strategy in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: final results of a randomized phase 2 study. Blood 130 (11): 1315-1326, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Dührsen U, Müller S, Hertenstein B, et al.: Positron Emission Tomography-Guided Therapy of Aggressive Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas (PETAL): A Multicenter, Randomized Phase III Trial. J Clin Oncol 36 (20): 2024-2034, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Gobba S, Moccia AA, Gulden-Sala W, et al.: Outcome of patients older than 80 years with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) treated with "standard" immunochemotherapy: A large retrospective study from 4 institutions. Hematol Oncol 36 (1): 84-92, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  12. Wang Y, Link BK, Witzig TE, et al.: Impact of concurrent indolent lymphoma on the clinical outcome of newly diagnosed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Blood 134 (16): 1289-1297, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  13. Morgner A, Miehlke S, Fischbach W, et al.: Complete remission of primary high-grade B-cell gastric lymphoma after cure of Helicobacter pylori infection. J Clin Oncol 19 (7): 2041-8, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  14. Chen LT, Lin JT, Shyu RY, et al.: Prospective study of Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy in stage I(E) high-grade mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma of the stomach. J Clin Oncol 19 (22): 4245-51, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  15. Chen LT, Lin JT, Tai JJ, et al.: Long-term results of anti-Helicobacter pylori therapy in early-stage gastric high-grade transformed MALT lymphoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 97 (18): 1345-53, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
  16. Kuo SH, Yeh KH, Wu MS, et al.: Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy is effective in the treatment of early-stage H pylori-positive gastric diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. Blood 119 (21): 4838-44; quiz 5057, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  17. Zhou Z, Sehn LH, Rademaker AW, et al.: An enhanced International Prognostic Index (NCCN-IPI) for patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma treated in the rituximab era. Blood 123 (6): 837-42, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  18. Møller MB, Christensen BE, Pedersen NT: Prognosis of localized diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in younger patients. Cancer 98 (3): 516-21, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  19. Maurer MJ, Ghesquières H, Link BK, et al.: Diagnosis-to-Treatment Interval Is an Important Clinical Factor in Newly Diagnosed Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma and Has Implication for Bias in Clinical Trials. J Clin Oncol 36 (16): 1603-1610, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  20. Cuccuini W, Briere J, Mounier N, et al.: MYC+ diffuse large B-cell lymphoma is not salvaged by classical R-ICE or R-DHAP followed by BEAM plus autologous stem cell transplantation. Blood 119 (20): 4619-24, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  21. Johnson NA, Slack GW, Savage KJ, et al.: Concurrent expression of MYC and BCL2 in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma treated with rituximab plus cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone. J Clin Oncol 30 (28): 3452-9, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  22. Green TM, Young KH, Visco C, et al.: Immunohistochemical double-hit score is a strong predictor of outcome in patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma treated with rituximab plus cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone. J Clin Oncol 30 (28): 3460-7, 2012.[PUBMED Abstract]
  23. Horn H, Ziepert M, Becher C, et al.: MYC status in concert with BCL2 and BCL6 expression predicts outcome in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Blood 121 (12): 2253-63, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  24. Canellos GP: CHOP may have been part of the beginning but certainly not the end: issues in risk-related therapy of large-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 15 (5): 1713-6, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  25. Sha C, Barrans S, Cucco F, et al.: Molecular High-Grade B-Cell Lymphoma: Defining a Poor-Risk Group That Requires Different Approaches to Therapy. J Clin Oncol 37 (3): 202-212, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  26. Coiffier B, Altman A, Pui CH, et al.: Guidelines for the management of pediatric and adult tumor lysis syndrome: an evidence-based review. J Clin Oncol 26 (16): 2767-78, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  27. Cortes J, Moore JO, Maziarz RT, et al.: Control of plasma uric acid in adults at risk for tumor Lysis syndrome: efficacy and safety of rasburicase alone and rasburicase followed by allopurinol compared with allopurinol alone--results of a multicenter phase III study. J Clin Oncol 28 (27): 4207-13, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  28. Glantz MJ, Cole BF, Recht L, et al.: High-dose intravenous methotrexate for patients with nonleukemic leptomeningeal cancer: is intrathecal chemotherapy necessary? J Clin Oncol 16 (4): 1561-7, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  29. Fisher RI, Gaynor ER, Dahlberg S, et al.: Comparison of a standard regimen (CHOP) with three intensive chemotherapy regimens for advanced non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 328 (14): 1002-6, 1993.[PUBMED Abstract]
  30. Bernstein SH, Unger JM, Leblanc M, et al.: Natural history of CNS relapse in patients with aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a 20-year follow-up analysis of SWOG 8516 -- the Southwest Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 27 (1): 114-9, 2009.[PUBMED Abstract]
  31. van Besien K, Ha CS, Murphy S, et al.: Risk factors, treatment, and outcome of central nervous system recurrence in adults with intermediate-grade and immunoblastic lymphoma. Blood 91 (4): 1178-84, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  32. Kusumoto S, Arcaini L, Hong X, et al.: Risk of HBV reactivation in patients with B-cell lymphomas receiving obinutuzumab or rituximab immunochemotherapy. Blood 133 (2): 137-146, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  33. Haioun C, Lepage E, Gisselbrecht C, et al.: Survival benefit of high-dose therapy in poor-risk aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: final analysis of the prospective LNH87-2 protocol--a groupe d'Etude des lymphomes de l'Adulte study. J Clin Oncol 18 (16): 3025-30, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
  34. Haioun C, Lepage E, Gisselbrecht C, et al.: Benefit of autologous bone marrow transplantation over sequential chemotherapy in poor-risk aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: updated results of the prospective study LNH87-2. Groupe d'Etude des Lymphomes de l'Adulte. J Clin Oncol 15 (3): 1131-7, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  35. Santini G, Salvagno L, Leoni P, et al.: VACOP-B versus VACOP-B plus autologous bone marrow transplantation for advanced diffuse non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: results of a prospective randomized trial by the non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Cooperative Study Group. J Clin Oncol 16 (8): 2796-802, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  36. Gianni AM, Bregni M, Siena S, et al.: High-dose chemotherapy and autologous bone marrow transplantation compared with MACOP-B in aggressive B-cell lymphoma. N Engl J Med 336 (18): 1290-7, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  37. Kluin-Nelemans HC, Zagonel V, Anastasopoulou A, et al.: Standard chemotherapy with or without high-dose chemotherapy for aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: randomized phase III EORTC study. J Natl Cancer Inst 93 (1): 22-30, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  38. Gisselbrecht C, Lepage E, Molina T, et al.: Shortened first-line high-dose chemotherapy for patients with poor-prognosis aggressive lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 20 (10): 2472-9, 2002.[PUBMED Abstract]
  39. Martelli M, Gherlinzoni F, De Renzo A, et al.: Early autologous stem-cell transplantation versus conventional chemotherapy as front-line therapy in high-risk, aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: an Italian multicenter randomized trial. J Clin Oncol 21 (7): 1255-62, 2003.[PUBMED Abstract]
  40. Milpied N, Deconinck E, Gaillard F, et al.: Initial treatment of aggressive lymphoma with high-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem-cell support. N Engl J Med 350 (13): 1287-95, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  41. Betticher DC, Martinelli G, Radford JA, et al.: Sequential high dose chemotherapy as initial treatment for aggressive sub-types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: results of the international randomized phase III trial (MISTRAL). Ann Oncol 17 (10): 1546-52, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  42. Stiff PJ, Unger JM, Cook JR, et al.: Autologous transplantation as consolidation for aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 369 (18): 1681-90, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  43. Chiappella A, Martelli M, Angelucci E, et al.: Rituximab-dose-dense chemotherapy with or without high-dose chemotherapy plus autologous stem-cell transplantation in high-risk diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLCL04): final results of a multicentre, open-label, randomised, controlled, phase 3 study. Lancet Oncol 18 (8): 1076-1088, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  44. Shipp MA, Abeloff MD, Antman KH, et al.: International Consensus Conference on high-dose therapy with hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation in aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphomas: report of the jury. Ann Oncol 10 (1): 13-9, 1999.[PUBMED Abstract]
  45. Held G, Murawski N, Ziepert M, et al.: Role of radiotherapy to bulky disease in elderly patients with aggressive B-cell lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 32 (11): 1112-8, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  46. Kahl BS: Bulky aggressive B-cell lymphoma: to radiate or not to radiate--that is the question. J Clin Oncol 32 (11): 1097-8, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  47. Phan J, Mazloom A, Medeiros LJ, et al.: Benefit of consolidative radiation therapy in patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma treated with R-CHOP chemotherapy. J Clin Oncol 28 (27): 4170-6, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
Treatment for Lymphoblastic Lymphoma (LBL)/Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL)

LBL is a very aggressive form of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), which often occurs in young patients but not exclusively. LBL is the lymphomatous manifestation of ALL. The treatment paradigms are based on trials for ALL because LBL and ALL are considered different manifestations of the same biologic disease. LBL is commonly associated with large mediastinal masses and has a high predilection for disseminating to bone marrow and the central nervous system (CNS). (Refer to the PDQ summary on Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment for more information.) Intensive combination chemotherapy with CNS prophylaxis is the standard treatment of this aggressive histologic type of NHL. Radiation therapy is sometimes given to areas of bulky tumor masses. Because these forms of NHL tend to progress quickly, combination chemotherapy is instituted rapidly once the diagnosis has been confirmed.

The most important aspects of the pretreatment staging workup include careful review of the following pathological specimens:

Standard Treatment Options for LBL/ALL

Standard treatment options for LBL include the following:

  1. Intensive therapy.
  2. Radiation therapy.

(Refer to the PDQ summary on Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment for more information.)

Intensive therapy

Standard treatment is intensive combination chemotherapy with CNS prophylaxis.

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy is sometimes given to areas of bulky tumor masses.

Treatment Options Under Clinical Evaluation for LBL/ALL

New treatment approaches are being developed by the national cooperative groups. Other approaches include the use of bone marrow transplantation for consolidation. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment for more information.)

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.

Treatment for Diffuse, Small Noncleaved-Cell/Burkitt Lymphoma

Diffuse, small, noncleaved-cell/Burkitt lymphoma typically involves younger patients and represents the most common type of pediatric NHL.[ 1 ]

Standard Treatment Options for Diffuse, Small Noncleaved-Cell/Burkitt Lymphoma

Standard treatment options for diffuse, small, noncleaved-cell/Burkitt lymphoma include the following:

  1. Aggressive multidrug regimens.
  2. CNS prophylaxis.

Aggressive multidrug regimens

Standard treatment for diffuse, small, noncleaved-cell/Burkitt lymphoma is usually with aggressive multidrug regimens similar to those used for the advanced-stage aggressive lymphomas (such as diffuse large cell).[ 2 ][ 3 ][ 4 ] Adverse prognostic factors include bulky abdominal disease and high serum lactate dehydrogenase.

Evidence (aggressive multidrug regimens):

CNS prophylaxis

Patients with diffuse, small, noncleaved-cell/Burkitt lymphoma have a 20% to 30% lifetime risk of CNS involvement. CNS prophylaxis with methotrexate is recommended for all patients, usually given as four to six intrathecal injections.[ 8 ] (Refer to the PDQ summary on Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment for more information).

Evidence (CNS prophylaxis):

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.

参考文献
  1. Blum KA, Lozanski G, Byrd JC: Adult Burkitt leukemia and lymphoma. Blood 104 (10): 3009-20, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Thomas DA, Faderl S, O'Brien S, et al.: Chemoimmunotherapy with hyper-CVAD plus rituximab for the treatment of adult Burkitt and Burkitt-type lymphoma or acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer 106 (7): 1569-80, 2006.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Hoelzer D, Walewski J, Döhner H, et al.: Improved outcome of adult Burkitt lymphoma/leukemia with rituximab and chemotherapy: report of a large prospective multicenter trial. Blood 124 (26): 3870-9, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Dunleavy K, Pittaluga S, Shovlin M, et al.: Low-intensity therapy in adults with Burkitt's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 369 (20): 1915-25, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Magrath I, Adde M, Shad A, et al.: Adults and children with small non-cleaved-cell lymphoma have a similar excellent outcome when treated with the same chemotherapy regimen. J Clin Oncol 14 (3): 925-34, 1996.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Hoelzer D, Ludwig WD, Thiel E, et al.: Improved outcome in adult B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 87 (2): 495-508, 1996.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Mead GM, Sydes MR, Walewski J, et al.: An international evaluation of CODOX-M and CODOX-M alternating with IVAC in adult Burkitt's lymphoma: results of United Kingdom Lymphoma Group LY06 study. Ann Oncol 13 (8): 1264-74, 2002.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Rizzieri DA, Johnson JL, Niedzwiecki D, et al.: Intensive chemotherapy with and without cranial radiation for Burkitt leukemia and lymphoma: final results of Cancer and Leukemia Group B Study 9251. Cancer 100 (7): 1438-48, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Magrath IT, Haddy TB, Adde MA: Treatment of patients with high grade non-Hodgkin's lymphomas and central nervous system involvement: is radiation an essential component of therapy? Leuk Lymphoma 21 (1-2): 99-105, 1996.[PUBMED Abstract]
Treatment for Aggressive, Recurrent Adult NHL

Standard Treatment Options for Aggressive, Recurrent Adult NHL

In a retrospective review of multiple international trials, 636 patients were identified as having refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), which was defined as progression or stable disease during or just at completion of full-course chemotherapy or relapse within 1 year after autologous stem cell transplantation (SCT).[ 1 ] With subsequent therapy the objective response rate was 26%, complete response (CR) rate was 7%, median overall survival (OS) was 6.3 months, and only 20% of patients were alive at 2 years.

Standard treatment options for aggressive, recurrent adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) include the following:

  1. Bone marrow or stem cell transplantation.
  2. Re-treatment with standard agents.
  3. Palliative radiation therapy.

Bone marrow or stem cell transplantation

Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is the treatment of choice for patients whose lymphoma has relapsed.[ 2 ] Preliminary studies indicate that approximately 20% to 40% of patients will have a long-term disease-free status, but the precise percentage depends on patient selection and the specific treatment used. Preparative drug regimens have varied; some investigators also use total-body irradiation. Similar success has been achieved using autologous marrow, with or without marrow purging, and allogeneic marrow.[ 3 ][ 4 ][ 5 ][ 6 ][ 7 ]

Evidence (BMT):

  1. In a prospective, randomized study, (EORTC-PARMA), 215 patients in first or second relapse of aggressive lymphoma, younger than 60 years, and with no bone marrow or central nervous system involvement, were given two cycles of intensive combination chemotherapy. The 109 patients who responded were randomly assigned to receive four more cycles of chemotherapy and involved-field radiation therapy (IF-XRT) versus autologous BMT followed by IF-XRT. With a 5-year median follow-up, the event-free survival (EFS) was significantly improved with transplantation (46% vs. 12%). OS was also significantly better with transplantation (53% vs. 32%).[ 8 ][Level of evidence: 1iiA] Salvage BMT was unsuccessful for patients on the nontransplant arm whose disease relapsed.

    In general, patients who responded to initial therapy and who responded to conventional therapy for relapse before the BMT have had the best results.[ 9 ]

  2. In a prospective trial, patients who relapsed late (>12 months after diagnosis) had better OS than patients who relapsed earlier (8-year survival was 29% vs. 13%, P = .001).[ 10 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiA]

Peripheral stem cell transplantation (SCT) has yielded results equivalent to standard autologous SCT.[ 11 ][ 12 ] Even patients who never experienced complete remission with conventional chemotherapy may have prolonged progression-free survival (31% at 5 years) after high-dose chemotherapy and hematopoietic SCT if they retain chemosensitivity to reinduction therapy.[ 13 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiii] Some patients who relapse after a previous autologous SCT can have durable remissions after myeloablative or nonmyeloablative allogeneic SCT.[ 14 ][ 15 ]; [ 16 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Evidence (peripheral SCT):

CAR T-cell therapy

Multiple trials describe patients with refractory large B-cell lymphoma who underwent an infusion of T cells that were engineered to express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) to target the CD19 antigen expressed on the malignant B cells using three different constructs: axicabtagene ciloleucel, tisagenecleucel, and lisocabtagene maraleucel.[ 22 ][ 23 ][ 24 ] Each study reported a 50% to 60% CR, but the long-term durability of response is yet to be determined.[ 22 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv] This represents a therapeutic option for patients with otherwise refractory or resistant disease. Patients who respond adequately may receive an autologous SCT or allogeneic SCT consolidation.

Palliative radiation therapy

In general, patients with aggressive lymphoma who relapse with indolent histology will benefit from palliative therapy.[ 25 ] Palliation may be achieved with very low-dose (4 Gy) IF-XRT for patients with indolent and aggressive relapsed disease.[ 26 ]

Current Clinical Trials

Use our advanced clinical trial search to find NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now enrolling patients. The search can be narrowed by location of the trial, type of treatment, name of the drug, and other criteria. General information about clinical trials is also available.

参考文献
  1. Crump M, Neelapu SS, Farooq U, et al.: Outcomes in refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: results from the international SCHOLAR-1 study. Blood 130 (16): 1800-1808, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Shipp MA, Abeloff MD, Antman KH, et al.: International Consensus Conference on high-dose therapy with hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation in aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphomas: report of the jury. Ann Oncol 10 (1): 13-9, 1999.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Freedman AS, Takvorian T, Anderson KC, et al.: Autologous bone marrow transplantation in B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: very low treatment-related mortality in 100 patients in sensitive relapse. J Clin Oncol 8 (5): 784-91, 1990.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Phillips GL, Fay JW, Herzig RH, et al.: The treatment of progressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma with intensive chemoradiotherapy and autologous marrow transplantation. Blood 75 (4): 831-8, 1990.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Chopra R, Goldstone AH, Pearce R, et al.: Autologous versus allogeneic bone marrow transplantation for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: a case-controlled analysis of the European Bone Marrow Transplant Group Registry data. J Clin Oncol 10 (11): 1690-5, 1992.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Ratanatharathorn V, Uberti J, Karanes C, et al.: Prospective comparative trial of autologous versus allogeneic bone marrow transplantation in patients with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Blood 84 (4): 1050-5, 1994.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Mills W, Chopra R, McMillan A, et al.: BEAM chemotherapy and autologous bone marrow transplantation for patients with relapsed or refractory non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 13 (3): 588-95, 1995.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Philip T, Guglielmi C, Hagenbeek A, et al.: Autologous bone marrow transplantation as compared with salvage chemotherapy in relapses of chemotherapy-sensitive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. N Engl J Med 333 (23): 1540-5, 1995.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Vellenga E, van Putten WL, van 't Veer MB, et al.: Rituximab improves the treatment results of DHAP-VIM-DHAP and ASCT in relapsed/progressive aggressive CD20+ NHL: a prospective randomized HOVON trial. Blood 111 (2): 537-43, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Guglielmi C, Gomez F, Philip T, et al.: Time to relapse has prognostic value in patients with aggressive lymphoma enrolled onto the Parma trial. J Clin Oncol 16 (10): 3264-9, 1998.[PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Vose JM, Anderson JR, Kessinger A, et al.: High-dose chemotherapy and autologous hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation for aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 11 (10): 1846-51, 1993.[PUBMED Abstract]
  12. Liberti G, Pearce R, Taghipour G, et al.: Comparison of peripheral blood stem-cell and autologous bone marrow transplantation for lymphoma patients: a case-controlled analysis of the EBMT Registry data. Lymphoma Working Party of the EBMT. Ann Oncol 5 (Suppl 2): 151-3, 1994.[PUBMED Abstract]
  13. Vose JM, Zhang MJ, Rowlings PA, et al.: Autologous transplantation for diffuse aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in patients never achieving remission: a report from the Autologous Blood and Marrow Transplant Registry. J Clin Oncol 19 (2): 406-13, 2001.[PUBMED Abstract]
  14. van Kampen RJ, Canals C, Schouten HC, et al.: Allogeneic stem-cell transplantation as salvage therapy for patients with diffuse large B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma relapsing after an autologous stem-cell transplantation: an analysis of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation Registry. J Clin Oncol 29 (10): 1342-8, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
  15. Freytes CO, Loberiza FR, Rizzo JD, et al.: Myeloablative allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in patients who experience relapse after autologous stem cell transplantation for lymphoma: a report of the International Bone Marrow Transplant Registry. Blood 104 (12): 3797-803, 2004.[PUBMED Abstract]
  16. Rezvani AR, Norasetthada L, Gooley T, et al.: Non-myeloablative allogeneic haematopoietic cell transplantation for relapsed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: a multicentre experience. Br J Haematol 143 (3): 395-403, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  17. Gisselbrecht C, Glass B, Mounier N, et al.: Salvage regimens with autologous transplantation for relapsed large B-cell lymphoma in the rituximab era. J Clin Oncol 28 (27): 4184-90, 2010.[PUBMED Abstract]
  18. Crump M, Kuruvilla J, Couban S, et al.: Randomized comparison of gemcitabine, dexamethasone, and cisplatin versus dexamethasone, cytarabine, and cisplatin chemotherapy before autologous stem-cell transplantation for relapsed and refractory aggressive lymphomas: NCIC-CTG LY.12. J Clin Oncol 32 (31): 3490-6, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
  19. Zinzani PL, Pellegrini C, Gandolfi L, et al.: Combination of lenalidomide and rituximab in elderly patients with relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: a phase 2 trial. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk 11 (6): 462-6, 2011.[PUBMED Abstract]
  20. Wiernik PH, Lossos IS, Tuscano JM, et al.: Lenalidomide monotherapy in relapsed or refractory aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Clin Oncol 26 (30): 4952-7, 2008.[PUBMED Abstract]
  21. Sehn LH, Herrera AF, Matasar MJ, et al.: Polatuzumab vedotin (Pola) plus bendamustine (B) with rituximab (R) or obinutuzumab (G) in relapsed/refractory (R/R) diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL): updated results of a phase (Ph) Ib/II study. [Abstract] Blood 132 (Suppl 1): A-1683, 2018.[PUBMED Abstract]
  22. Neelapu SS, Locke FL, Bartlett NL, et al.: Axicabtagene Ciloleucel CAR T-Cell Therapy in Refractory Large B-Cell Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 377 (26): 2531-2544, 2017.[PUBMED Abstract]
  23. Schuster SJ, Bishop MR, Tam CS, et al.: Tisagenlecleucel in Adult Relapsed or Refractory Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma. N Engl J Med 380 (1): 45-56, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  24. Locke FL, Ghobadi A, Jacobson CA, et al.: Long-term safety and activity of axicabtagene ciloleucel in refractory large B-cell lymphoma (ZUMA-1): a single-arm, multicentre, phase 1-2 trial. Lancet Oncol 20 (1): 31-42, 2019.[PUBMED Abstract]
  25. Lee AY, Connors JM, Klimo P, et al.: Late relapse in patients with diffuse large-cell lymphoma treated with MACOP-B. J Clin Oncol 15 (5): 1745-53, 1997.[PUBMED Abstract]
  26. Haas RL, Poortmans P, de Jong D, et al.: Effective palliation by low dose local radiotherapy for recurrent and/or chemotherapy refractory non-follicular lymphoma patients. Eur J Cancer 41 (12): 1724-30, 2005.[PUBMED Abstract]
NHL During Pregnancy

General Information About NHL During Pregnancy

Non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL) occur more frequently than Hodgkin lymphoma in an older population. This age difference may account for fewer reports of NHL in pregnant patients.[ 1 ]

Stage Information for NHL During Pregnancy

To avoid exposure to ionizing radiation, magnetic resonance imaging is the preferred tool for staging evaluation.[ 2 ] (Refer to the Stage Information for Adult NHL section of this summary for more information.)

Treatment Option Overview for NHL During Pregnancy

Table 5. Treatment Options for Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL) During Pregnancy
Stage Standard Treatment Options
Indolent NHL During Pregnancy Delay treatment until after delivery
Aggressive NHL During Pregnancy Immediate therapy
Early delivery, when feasible
Termination of pregnancy

Indolent NHL During Pregnancy

Treatment may be delayed for those women with an indolent NHL.

Aggressive NHL During Pregnancy

Immediate therapy

According to anecdotal case series, most NHL in pregnant patients are aggressive, and delay of therapy until after delivery appears to have poor outcomes.[ 1 ][ 3 ][ 4 ][ 5 ] Consequently, some investigators favor immediate therapy, even during pregnancy.[ 5 ] In a review of 121 patient case reports from 74 papers, one-half of the patients had very aggressive lymphomas, such as Burkitt lymphoma, and one-half of the patients had involvement of the breast, ovaries, uterus, or placenta.[ 6 ] One-half of the patients received therapy antepartum, and the 6-month survival was reported at 53%, with a live-birth rate of 83%.[ 6 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

A multicenter retrospective analysis of 50 patients described pregnancy termination in 3 patients, deferral of therapy to postpartum in 15 patients (median 30 weeks gestation), and antenatal therapy applied to the remaining 32 patients (median 21 weeks gestation, all done after the first trimester).[ 7 ] With a median follow-up of 41 months, the 3-year progression-free survival was 53%, and overall survival was 82%, using R-CHOP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin hydrochloride, vincristine sulfate, and prednisone) or modifications of this regimen.[ 7 ][Level of evidence: 3iiiDiv]

Early delivery when feasible

For some women, early delivery, when feasible, may minimize or avoid exposure to chemotherapy or radiation therapy.

Termination of pregnancy

Termination of pregnancy in the first trimester may be an option that allows immediate therapy for women with aggressive NHL.

Evidence (treatment effect on children exposed in utero):

参考文献
  1. Ward FT, Weiss RB: Lymphoma and pregnancy. Semin Oncol 16 (5): 397-409, 1989.[PUBMED Abstract]
  2. Nicklas AH, Baker ME: Imaging strategies in the pregnant cancer patient. Semin Oncol 27 (6): 623-32, 2000.[PUBMED Abstract]
  3. Steiner-Salz D, Yahalom J, Samuelov A, et al.: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma associated with pregnancy. A report of six cases, with a review of the literature. Cancer 56 (8): 2087-91, 1985.[PUBMED Abstract]
  4. Spitzer M, Citron M, Ilardi CF, et al.: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma during pregnancy. Gynecol Oncol 43 (3): 309-12, 1991.[PUBMED Abstract]
  5. Gelb AB, van de Rijn M, Warnke RA, et al.: Pregnancy-associated lymphomas. A clinicopathologic study. Cancer 78 (2): 304-10, 1996.[PUBMED Abstract]
  6. Horowitz NA, Benyamini N, Wohlfart K, et al.: Reproductive organ involvement in non-Hodgkin lymphoma during pregnancy: a systematic review. Lancet Oncol 14 (7): e275-82, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  7. Evens AM, Advani R, Press OW, et al.: Lymphoma occurring during pregnancy: antenatal therapy, complications, and maternal survival in a multicenter analysis. J Clin Oncol 31 (32): 4132-9, 2013.[PUBMED Abstract]
  8. Avilés A, Díaz-Maqueo JC, Torras V, et al.: Non-Hodgkin's lymphomas and pregnancy: presentation of 16 cases. Gynecol Oncol 37 (3): 335-7, 1990.[PUBMED Abstract]
  9. Moore DT, Taslimi MM: Multi-agent chemotherapy in a case of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in second trimester of pregnancy. J Tenn Med Assoc 84 (9): 435-6, 1991.[PUBMED Abstract]
  10. Nantel S, Parboosingh J, Poon MC: Treatment of an aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma during pregnancy with MACOP-B chemotherapy. Med Pediatr Oncol 18 (2): 143-5, 1990.[PUBMED Abstract]
  11. Mandal PK, Dolai TK, Bagchi B, et al.: B cell suppression in newborn following treatment of pregnant diffuse large B-cell lymphoma patient with rituximab containing regimen. Indian J Pediatr 81 (10): 1092-4, 2014.[PUBMED Abstract]
Changes to This Summary (06/26/2020)

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Aggressive Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL)

Added Sha et al. as reference 21.

Revised text to state that patients with breast implant–associated anaplastic large cell lymphomas may do well without chemotherapy after capsulectomy and implant removal if the disease is confined to the fibrous capsule, and no associated mass or lymphadenopathy is present (cited Jaffe et al. as reference 66).

Added Li et al. as reference 87.

Added text to state that a complex karyotype predicts poor response to induction therapy and inferior survival (cited Greenwell et al. as reference 177).

Revised text to state that thus far, randomized trials have not confirmed overall survival benefits from these newer approaches.

Added text to state that patients with relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma whose disease did not respond to ibrutinib or acalabrutinib were enrolled in a phase II trial using KTE-X19, an anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy. With a median follow-up of 12 months, 60 patients had an overall response rate of 93% and a 67% complete response. Grade 3 or higher cytokine release syndrome occurred in 15% of patients, and neurologic events occurred in 31% of patients (cited Wang et al. as reference 208 and level of evidence 3iiiDiv).

Treatment Option Overview for Adult NHL

Added text to state that among 2,508 patients in a Danish registry, the incidence of doxorubicin-induced congestive heart failure increased for 115 non-Hodgkin lymphoma survivors with a history of cardiac disease and/or multiple cardiovascular risk factors (cited Salz et al. as reference 11).

Treatment for Aggressive, Noncontiguous Stage II/III/IV Adult NHL

Added Sha et al. as reference 25.

This summary is written and maintained by the PDQ Adult Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of NCI. The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or NIH. More information about summary policies and the role of the PDQ Editorial Boards in maintaining the PDQ summaries can be found on the About This PDQ Summary and PDQ® - NCI's Comprehensive Cancer Database pages.

About This PDQ Summary

Purpose of This Summary

This PDQ cancer information summary for health professionals provides comprehensive, peer-reviewed, evidence-based information about the treatment of adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It is intended as a resource to inform and assist clinicians who care for cancer patients. It does not provide formal guidelines or recommendations for making health care decisions.

Reviewers and Updates

This summary is reviewed regularly and updated as necessary by the PDQ Adult Treatment Editorial Board, which is editorially independent of the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The summary reflects an independent review of the literature and does not represent a policy statement of NCI or the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Board members review recently published articles each month to determine whether an article should:

Changes to the summaries are made through a consensus process in which Board members evaluate the strength of the evidence in the published articles and determine how the article should be included in the summary.

Any comments or questions about the summary content should be submitted to Cancer.gov through the NCI website's Email Us. Do not contact the individual Board Members with questions or comments about the summaries. Board members will not respond to individual inquiries.

Levels of Evidence

Some of the reference citations in this summary are accompanied by a level-of-evidence designation. These designations are intended to help readers assess the strength of the evidence supporting the use of specific interventions or approaches. The PDQ Adult Treatment Editorial Board uses a formal evidence ranking system in developing its level-of-evidence designations.

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PDQ is a registered trademark. Although the content of PDQ documents can be used freely as text, it cannot be identified as an NCI PDQ cancer information summary unless it is presented in its entirety and is regularly updated. However, an author would be permitted to write a sentence such as “NCI’s PDQ cancer information summary about breast cancer prevention states the risks succinctly: [include excerpt from the summary].”

The preferred citation for this PDQ summary is:

PDQ® Adult Treatment Editorial Board. PDQ Adult Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Treatment. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute. Updated <MM/DD/YYYY>. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/types/lymphoma/hp/adult-nhl-treatment-pdq. Accessed <MM/DD/YYYY>. [PMID: 26389492]

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