Last Modified : 2005-11-10
Cardiopulmonary syndromes are heart and lung symptoms, such as dyspnea (shortness of breath), cough, chest pain, irregular heartbeats, and excess fluid around the lungs (pleural effusion) and/or heart (pericardial effusion). These may be caused by cancer or by other conditions. Four cardiopulmonary syndromes commonly caused by cancer are covered in this summary:
Dyspnea is difficult, painful breathing or shortness of breath. Patients may use different words to describe the feeling of breathlessness; terms such as "tightness in the chest" and "suffocating" are sometimes used. The distress caused by dyspnea is different for each patient, from mild discomfort in one patient to severe discomfort in another. Dyspnea is common in patients with advanced cancer, lung cancer, and in the last 6 weeks of life.
Many conditions may cause dyspnea and coughing. In cancer patients, causes may include the following:
A diagnosis of the cause of the patient's dyspnea and coughing is helpful in planning treatment. Diagnostic tests and procedures may include the following:
Management of Causes of Dyspnea
It may be possible to identify and treat the causes of dyspnea. Treatment may include the following:
If a large airway is blocked by a tumor that is pressing on it from the outside, surgery may be done to place a stent (a thin tube) within the airway to keep it open.
Management of Symptoms of Dyspnea
Management of the symptoms of dyspnea may include the following:
Patients who cannot breathe enough oxygen from the air may be given supplemental oxygen to inhale from tanks or cylinders. Devices that concentrate oxygen already in the air may also be prescribed.
Pain medicines may reduce physical and mental distress and exhaustion, and improve the patient's quality of life. Other drugs may be used to treat dyspnea that is related to panic disorder or severe anxiety.
Supportive measures may be effective for some patients. These measures include the following:
Management of Chronic Cough
In some patients, chronic (long-term) coughing causes pain, interferes with sleep, and worsens dyspnea and fatigue. Treatments include the following:
The pleural cavity is the space surrounding each lung in the chest. The pleura is the thin layer of tissue that covers the outer surface of each lung and lines the interior wall of the chest cavity, creating a sac that encloses the pleural cavity. Pleural tissue normally produces a small amount of fluid that helps the lungs move smoothly in the chest while a person is breathing. A pleural effusion is an increased amount of fluid in the pleural cavity, which then presses on the lungs and makes breathing difficult.
Pleural effusions may be malignant (caused by cancer) or nonmalignant (caused by a condition that is not cancer). Malignant effusions are a common complication of cancer. Lung cancer, breast cancer, lymphoma, and leukemia cause most malignant effusions. Effusions caused by cancer treatment, such as radiation therapy or chemotherapy, are called paramalignant effusions.
Not all pleural effusions found in cancer patients are malignant. Cancer patients often develop conditions such as congestive heart failure, pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, and malnutrition, and these conditions may cause pleural effusions to occur.
The following symptoms may be caused by malignant pleural effusion:
The management of a malignant pleural effusion is different from the management of a nonmalignant effusion, so an accurate diagnosis is important. Diagnostic tests may include the following:
Malignant pleural effusions often occur in advanced or unresectable cancer or in the last few weeks of life. The goal of treatment is usually palliative, to relieve the symptoms and improve the quality of life. The goals of therapy will depend on a number of factors, including the following:
Treatment of the symptoms of malignant pleural effusion may include the following:
(See Diagnosis of Malignant Pleural Effusion.) Removal of fluid from the pleural cavity using a needle may help to alleviate severe symptoms in the short-term. A few days after thoracentesis, the effusion will begin to reform. Repeated thoracentesis has risks, however, including bleeding, infection, collapsed lung, fluid in the lungs, and low blood pressure.
This is a procedure to close the pleural sac so that fluid cannot collect there. Fluid is first removed by thoracentesis. A drug or chemical that causes the sac to close is then inserted into the space through a chest tube. Chemical agents such as bleomycin or talc may be used.
Surgery may be done to implant a shunt (tube) to transfer the fluid from the pleural cavity to the peritoneal (abdominal) cavity, where the fluid can be more easily removed. Another option is pleurectomy, removal of the part of the pleura that lines the chest.
Pericardial effusion is an increased amount of fluid inside the pericardium, the thin layer of tissue that forms a sac surrounding the heart. The excess fluid causes pressure on the heart, which prevents it from pumping blood normally. Lymph vessels may also be blocked, and bacterial or viral infections often develop. If fluid builds up very quickly, a condition called cardiac tamponade may occur, in which the pressure on the heart becomes life-threatening and must be treated promptly.
Pericardial effusions may be malignant or nonmalignant. Malignant pericardial effusions are caused by cancer that begins in the pericardium or the heart muscle, or by cancer that has spread there from the lung, esophagus, thymus, or lymph system. Malignant pericardial effusions are commonly caused by lung cancer in males and breast cancer in females. Nonmalignant causes include infection of the pericardium, heart attack, underactive thyroid gland, lupus, injury, surgery, and AIDS. Infection of the pericardium is a possible side effect of radiation therapy or chemotherapy.
The following symptoms may be caused by malignant pericardial effusions:
Because pericardial effusions usually occur in advanced cancer or in the last few weeks of life, extensive diagnostic testing may be less important than relief of symptoms. The following tests and procedure may be used to diagnose pericardial effusion:
Large malignant pericardial effusions are managed by draining the fluid, unless the goals of therapy are to use a less invasive approach that may improve quality of life but not help the patient live longer. The goals of therapy depend on a number of factors, including the following:
Treatment options include the following:
(See Diagnosis of Malignant Pericardial Effusion.) In some patients, fluid may again collect in the pericardium after pericardiocentesis. A catheter may be inserted and left in place to allow continued drainage. This procedure may be used for patients with advanced cancer instead of more invasive surgery.
A procedure to close the pericardium so fluid cannot collect in the cavity. Fluid is first removed by pericardiocentesis. A drug or chemical that causes the pericardium to close is then injected through a catheter into the pericardial space. Three or more treatments may be needed to completely close the pericardium.
A surgical incision is made in the chest and then in the pericardium to insert a drainage tube. This increases the quantity of fluid that can be drained from the pericardium.
Surgery to remove part of the pericardium. This may be done when there are chronic infections of the pericardium or to drain fluid quickly when cardiac tamponade occurs. This surgery is also called pericardial window.
A catheter with a balloon tip is inserted through the chest and into the pericardium. The balloon is then inflated to enlarge the pericardial opening and allow fluid to drain into the pleural cavity. This may be used when an effusion has recurred (come back) after pericardiocentesis or as an alternative to more invasive surgery.
Superior vena cava syndrome (SVCS) is a group of symptoms that occur when the superior vena cava becomes partially blocked.
The right atrium (chamber) of the heart receives blood from two major veins: the superior (upper) vena cava and the inferior (lower) vena cava.
The superior vena cava is thin-walled, and the blood is under low pressure. If a tumor forms in the chest or nearby lymph nodes become swollen (as from lymphoma), the superior vena cava can be squeezed. Blood flow slows. Complete blockage of the vein can occur. Sometimes, the other veins can become larger and take over for the superior vena cava if it is blocked, but this takes time. Superior vena cava syndrome (SVCS) is the group of symptoms that occur when this vein is partially blocked.
The location of the blocked area and how fast the blockage occurs affect the symptoms.
The symptoms will be more severe if the vein becomes blocked quickly. This is because the other veins do not have time to widen and take over the increased blood flow from the superior vena cava.
The location of the blocked area also affects how severe the symptoms will be:
Common symptoms of SVCS include breathing problems and coughing.
The most common symptoms are these:
Less common symptoms include the following:
Superior vena cava syndrome (SVCS) is usually caused by cancer. In adults, SVCS most commonly occurs with lung cancer or non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. A tumor in the chest or swollen lymph nodes can press on the superior vena cava, blocking the blood flow. There are other less common causes for the superior vena cava to become blocked:
The following tests may be done to diagnose SVCS and find the location of the blockage:
The type of cancer can affect the type of treatment needed; for this reason, a diagnosis of suspected cancer should be made before treatment of SVCS is begun. Unless the airway is blocked or the brain is swelling, waiting to start treatment while a diagnosis is made usually presents no problem in adults. If lung cancer is suspected, a sputum sample and a biopsy may be taken.
This summary is about treatment for superior vena cava syndrome (SVCS) caused by cancer. Treatment will depend on the following:
Treatment of SVCS may include the following:
Watchful waiting
Watchful waiting is closely monitoring a patient’s condition without giving any treatment unless symptoms appear or change. A patient who has good blood flow through other veins and mild symptoms may not need treatment.
The following may be used to relieve symptoms and keep the patient comfortable:
Radiation therapy
If the blockage of the superior vena cava is caused by a tumor that is not sensitive to chemotherapy, radiation therapy may be given. Radiation therapy uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells. There are two types of radiation therapy. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer. Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is the usual treatment for tumors that respond to anticancer drugs, including small cell lung cancer and lymphoma. This treatment would not be changed for patients who have SVCS. Chemotherapy uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping the cells from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the spinal column, an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy).
Thrombolysis
SVCS may occur when a thrombus (blood clot) forms in a partially blocked vein. Thrombolysis is a method used to break up and remove blood clots. This may done using a drug put directly into the clot, through a catheter, or by a thrombectomy (the use of a device inserted into the vein).
Stent placement
A stent may be used to open up the blocked vein. A stent is a tube-like device that is inserted into the blocked area of a vein to allow blood to pass through. This helps most patients. Patients may also receive an anticoagulant to keep more blood clots from forming.
Surgery
Surgery to bypass (go around) the blocked part of the vein is sometimes used for cancer patients, but is used more often for patients without cancer.
Superior vena cava syndrome is serious and the symptoms can be upsetting to the patient and family. It is important that patients and family members receive information about the causes of superior vena cava syndrome and how to treat it. This can help relieve anxiety over symptoms such as swelling, trouble swallowing, coughing, and hoarseness.
When a patient has chosen not to receive aggressive treatment because of terminal cancer, palliative treatment can help keep the patient comfortable by relieving symptoms. Patients and family members can be taught how to provide palliative care to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.
Superior vena cava syndrome in a child is a serious medical emergency because the child's windpipe can become blocked.
Superior vena cava syndrome (SVCS) in children can be life threatening. This is because blockage of the child's trachea (windpipe) can quickly occur along with SVCS. In adults, the windpipe is fairly hard, but in children, it is softer and can more easily be squeezed shut. Also, the diameter of a child's windpipe is smaller, so any amount of swelling can cause breathing problems. Squeezing of the trachea is called superior mediastinal syndrome (SMS). Because SVCS and SMS often occur together in children, the two syndromes are considered to be the same.
The most common symptoms of SVCS in children are similar to those in adults.
Common symptoms include the following:
There are other less common but more serious symptoms:
The causes, diagnosis, and treatment of SVCS in children are not the same as in adults.
The most common cause of SVCS in children is non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
SVCS in children is rare; the most common cause is non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. As in adults, SVCS may also be caused by a blood clot that forms as a side effect of using an intravenous catheter.
SVCS in children may be diagnosed and treated before a definite diagnosis of cancer is made.
A physical exam, chest x-ray, and medical history are usually all that are needed to diagnose superior vena cava syndrome in children. If cancer is suspected, a biopsy is not done unless the lungs and heart of the child with SVCS are able to handle the anesthesia needed. Other imaging tests may be done to help determine if anesthesia can be safely used. In most cases, treatment will begin before a definite diagnosis of cancer is made.
It is important that treatment begins right away.
The following treatments may be used for SVCS in children:
Radiation therapy is usually used to treat a tumor that is causing the blocked vein. After radiation therapy, breathing may become more difficult because swelling narrows the windpipe. A drug to reduce swelling may be given.
Anticancer drugs, steroids, and/or other drugs may be used. If the tumor does not respond, it may be benign (not cancer).
This may include surgery to bypass (go around) the blocked part of the vein or to place a stent to open the vein.